Advanced Materials Manufacturing

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

Chapter 15

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.1 Introduction

• Deformation processes have been designed

to exploit the plasticity of engineering

materials

• Plasticity is the ability of a material to flow

as a solid without deterioration of properties

• Deformation processes require a large

amount of force

• Processes include bulk flow, simple

shearing, or compound bending

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

States of Stress

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.2 Forming Processes:

Independent Variables

• Forming processes consist of independent and

dependent variables

• Independent variables are the aspects of the

processes that the engineer or operator has direct

control

– Starting material

– Starting geometry of the workpiece

– Tool or die geometry

– Lubrication

– Starting temperature

– Speed of operation

– Amount of deformation

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Forming Operations

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Forming Operations

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Forming Operations

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.3 Dependent Variables

• Dependent variables are those that are

determined by the independent variable

selection

– Force or power requirements

– Material properties of the product

– Exit or final temperature

– Surface finish and precision

– Nature of the material flow

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.4 Independent-Dependent

Relationships

• Independent variables- control is direct and

immediate

• Dependent variables- control is entirely

indirect

– Determined by the process

– If a dependent variable needs to be controlled,

the designer must select the proper independent

variable that changes the dependent variable

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Independent-Dependent

Relationships

• Information on the

interdependence of

independent and

dependent variables

can be learned in three

ways

– Experience

– Experiment

– Process modeling

Figure 15-1 Schematic representation of a

metalforming system showing independent

variables, dependent variables, and the various

means of linking the two.

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.5 Process Modeling

• Simulations are created using finite element

modeling

• Models can predict how a material will

respond to a rolling process, fill a forging

die, flow through an extrusion die, or

solidify in a casting

• Heat treatments can be simulated

• Costly trial and error development cycles

can be eliminated

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.6 General Parameters

• Material being deformed must be

characterized

– Strength or resistance for deformation

– Conditions at different temperatures

– Formability limits

– Reaction to lubricants

• Speed of deformation and its effects

• Speed-sensitive materials- more energy is

required to produce the same results

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.7 Friction and Lubrication Under

Metalworking Conditions

• High forces and pressures are required to deform a

material

• For some processes, 50% of the energy is spent in

overcoming friction

• Changes in lubrication can alter material flow,

create or eliminate defects, alter surface finish and

dimensional precision, and modify product

properties

• Production rates, tool design, tool wear, and

process optimization depend on the ability to

determine and control friction

Veljko Samardzic

ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Friction Conditions

• Metalforming friction

differs from the friction

encountered in mechanical

devices

• For light, elastic loads,

friction is proportional to

the applied pressure

– μ is the coefficient of

friction

• At high pressures, friction

is related to the strength of

the weaker material

Figure 15-2 The effect of contact pressure

on the frictional resistance between two

surfaces.

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Friction

• Friction is resistance to sliding along an

interface

• Resistance can be attributed to:

– Abrasion

– Adhesion

• Resistance is proportional to the strength of

the weaker material and the contact area

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Surface Deterioration

• Surface wear is related to friction

• Wear on the workpiece is not objectionable,

but wear on the tooling is

• Tooling wear is economically costly and can

impact dimensional precision

• Tolerance control can be lost

• Tool wear can impact the surface finish

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Lubrication

• Key to success in many metalforming

operations

• Primarily selected to reduce friction and

tool wear, but may be used as a thermal

barrier, coolant, or corrosion retardant

• Other factors

– Ease of removal, lack of toxicity, odor,

flammability, reactivity, temperature, velocity,

wetting characteristics

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

15.8 Temperature Concerns

• Workpiece temperature can be one of the

most important process variables

• In general, an increase in temperature is

related to a decrease in strength, increase in

ductility, and decrease in the rate of strain

hardening

• Hot working

• Cold working

• Warm working

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Hot Working

• Plastic deformation of metals at a

temperature above the recrystallization

temperature

• Temperature varies greatly with material

• Recrystallization removes the effects of

strain hardening

• Hot working may produce undesirable

reactions from the metal and its

surroundings

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Structure and Property Modification

by Hot Working

• The size of grains upon cooling is not

typically uniform

• Undesirable grain shapes can be common

(such as columnar grains)

• Recrystallization is followed by:

– grain growth

– additional deformation and recrystallization

– drop in temperature that will terminate

diffusion and freeze the recrystallized structure

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Hot Working

• Engineering properties

can be improved

through reorienting

inclusion or impurities

• During plastic

deformation,

impurities tend to flow

along with the base

metal or fraction into

rows of fragments

Figure 15-4 Flow structure of a hot-forged gear

blank. Note how flow is parallel to all critical

surfaces. (Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel

Corporation, Bethlehem, PA.)

Figure 15-3 Cross section of a 4-in.-diameter

case copper bar polished and etched to show the

as-cast grain structure.

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Temperature Variations in Hot

Working

• Success or failure of a hot

deformation process often

depends on the ability to

control temperatures

• Over 90% of the energy

imparted to a deforming

workpiece is converted to

heat

• Nonuniform temperatures

may be produced and may

result in cracking

• Thin sections cool faster

than thick sections

Figure 15-5 Schematic comparison of the

grain flow in a machined thread (a) and a rolled

thread (b). The rolling operation further

deforms the axial structure produced by the

previous wire- or rod-forming operations, while

machining simply cuts through it.

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Cold Working

• Plastic deformation below the

recrystallization temperature

• Advantages as compared to hot working

– No heating required

– Better surface finish

– Superior dimensional control

– Better reproducibility

– Strength, fatigue, and wear are improved

– Directional properties can be imparted

– Contamination is minimized

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Disadvantages of Cold Working

• Higher forces are required to initiate and complete

the deformation

• Heavier and more powerful equipment and

stronger tooling are required

• Less ductility is available

• Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free

• Intermediate anneals may be required

• Imparted directional properties can be detrimental

• Undesirable residual stresses may be produced

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Metal Properties and Cold

Working

• Two features that are significant in selecting a material for cold

working are

– Magnitude of the yield-point stress

– Extent of the strain region from yield stress to fracture

• Springback should also be considered when selecting a material

Figure 15-6 Use of true stress-true strain diagram to assess

the suitability of two metals for cold working.

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Initial and Final Properties in a

Cold-Working Process

• Quality of the starting

material is important

to the success or

failure of the cold-

working process

• The starting material

should be clean and

free of oxide or scale

that might cause

abrasion to the dies or

rolls

Figure 15-7 (Below) Stress-strain

curve for a low-carbon steel

showing the commonly observed

yield-point runout; (Right) Luders

bands or stretcher strains that

form when this material is

stretched to an amount less than

the yield-point runout.

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Additional Effects of Cold

Working

• Annealing heat treatments

may be performed prior or

at intermediate intervals to

cold working

• Heat treatments allow

additional cold working

and deformation processes

• Cold working produces a

structure where properties

vary with direction,

anisotropy

Figure 15-8 Mechanical properties of pure copper

as a function of the amount of cold work

(expressed in percent).

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Warm Forming

• Deformations produced at temperatures

intermediate to cold and hot working

• Advantages

– Reduced loads on the tooling and equipment

– Increased material ductility

– Possible reduction in the number of anneals

– Less scaling and decarburization

– Better dimensional precision and smoother

surfaces than hot working

– Used for processes such as forging and

extrusion

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ME-215 Engineering Materials and Processes

Isothermal Forming

• Deformation that occurs

under constant

temperature

• Dies and tooling are

heated to the same

temperature as the

workpiece

• Eliminates cracking from

nonuniform surface

temperatures

• Inert atmospheres may be

used

Figure 15-10 Yield strength of various materials (as

indicated by pressure required to forge a standard

specimen) as a function of temperature. Materials

with steep curves may require isothermal forming.

(From “A Study of Forging Variables,” ML-TDR-64-

95, March 1964; courtesy of Battelle Columbus

Laboratories, Columbus, OH.)