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Assessment of Perceived Levels of Stress and Coping Assessment of Perceived Levels of Stress and Coping
Mechanism Use Among Elementary School Teachers Mechanism Use Among Elementary School Teachers
Lauren Larson
Minnesota State University, Mankato
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Assessment of Perceived Levels of Stress and Coping Mechanism Use Among
Elementary School Teachers
By
Lauren Larson
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
In
Community Health Education
Minnesota State University, Mankato
Mankato, Minnesota
May 2021
i
April 28, 2021
Assessment of Perceived Levels of Stress and Coping Mechanism Use Among Elementary
School Teachers
Lauren Larson
This thesis has been examined and approved by the following members of the student’s
committee.
________________________________
Dr. Mary Kramer
________________________________
Dr. Joseph Visker
________________________________
Dr. Mark Windschitl
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my committee members, Dr.
Mary Kramer, Dr. Joseph Visker, and Dr. Mark Windschitl, for their guidance and
encouragement throughout my research project. This work would not have been
possible without their persistent help and unwavering support. I would also like to thank
my family and friends for their love and support. To my husband, Eric, thank you for
being my rock. I could not have done this without you.
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………………………. 1
Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Significance of the Problem …………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Purpose Statement ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Limitations …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Delimitations …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
Assumptions …………….………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Definition of Terms …..………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Attrition …..………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
Burnout …..………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
Coping …..………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 6
Occupational stress …..…………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Protective factors …..……………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Risk factors …..…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
Stress …..………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
Chapter Two: Review of Literature ..……………………………………………………………………. 8
Stress …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Teacher Stress ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
Influences on Occupational Stress ……………………………………………………………………….. 11
iv
Impact of Occupational Stress ……………………………………………………………………………… 12
Coping Mechanisms …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Chapter Three: Methodology .……………………………………………………………………………. 16
Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Research Design ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Subject Selection …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17
Instrumentation ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 17
Data Collection ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20
Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20
Table 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 21
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
Chapter Four: Results ………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Participants …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23
Demographics ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Table 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
What are the perceived levels of stress experienced by elementary school teachers
In Minnesota? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
What coping mechanisms are used among elementary school teachers in
Minnesota? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Table 3 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
v
What is the relationship between the perceived level of stress experienced by
elementary school teachers in Minnesota and the stress coping mechanisms
used? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Table 4 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ……………………………. 31
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
Recommendations for Health Educators …………………………………………………………….. 32
Recommendations for Future Research ………………………………………………………………. 33
References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
Appendices .……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
Appendix A: Institutional Review Board Letter of Approval………………………………….. 41
vi
Assessment of Perceived Levels of Stress and Coping Mechanism Use Among
Elementary School Teachers
Lauren Larson
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Community Health Education
Minnesota State University, Mankato
Mankato, Minnesota
April 2021
Abstract
The teaching profession is known to be highly stressful. Teacher stress is a real
concern as there is a well-established link between job stress, burnout, and teacher
attrition. Teacher attrition rates are currently at concerning levels in the United States
and around the world. A cross-sectional, correlational study design was used to assess
the relationship between perceived levels of stress and coping mechanism use among
elementary school teachers. Participants consisted of a convenience sample of 420
public elementary school teachers in Minnesota. A 48-item survey which included the
Perceived Stress Scale and Brief COPE was used to measure perceived levels of stress
and coping mechanism use among participants. Results from this study found that the
average total stress score on a scale of 0 to 40, with higher scores indicating higher
perceived stress, for teachers surveyed was 27.04. The coping mechanisms most utilized
by teachers who participated in this study were “Acceptance”, “Active coping”, and
“Planning”. Statistically significant relationships were found between total stress scores
and the following coping mechanisms: Self-distraction, Active coping, Denial, Substance
use, Emotional support, Use of informational support, Behavioral disengagement,
Venting, Positive reframing, Planning, Religion, and Self-blame. Findings from this study
confirm the prevalence of stress among elementary school teachers and a relationship
between perceived levels of stress and coping mechanism use.
1
Chapter One: Statement of the Problem
Stress is defined as an imbalance between risk factors and protective factors.
This conceptualization facilitates identification of factors that help or hinder a sense of
well-being (Prilleltensky, Neff, & Bessell, 2016). Stress is often displayed through
negative feelings, behaviors, and thoughts. An individual’s experience of psychological
discomfort and associated disorders that result from general working conditions is
referred to as occupational stress (von der Embse, Ryan, Gibbs, & Mankin, 2019). High
levels of occupational stress have been linked to an increased risk of physical injuries,
cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, depression and increases in negative
personal behaviors such as anger, anxiety, and irritability (Mosadeghrad, 2014).
Workers in all professions may be prone to occupational stress, but those
working in “human services” professions may experience occupational stress at
particularly high levels (Maslach, 2003). Human services can include any profession that
exists to aid people in their time of need and ‘‘improv[e] the overall quality of life of
service populations’’ (National Organization for Human Services [NOHS], n.d., para. 1).
Teachers, who are not only responsible for educating their students, but who are also
often called upon for various duties necessary for the overall well-being of students, are
likely to experience high levels of stress. The ability of teachers to effectively cope with
high levels of stress is essential for schools and the students they serve.
2
Statement of the Problem
Within people-oriented professions such as teaching, the therapeutic or service
relationships that providers develop with recipients require an ongoing and intense level
of personal and emotional contact (Maslach & Leiter, 2016). While such relationships
can be rewarding and engaging, they can also be quite stressful (Maslach & Leiter,
2016). The prevailing norms within these professions are to be selfless and put others’
needs first; to work long hours and do whatever it takes to help a client or patient or
student (Maslach & Leiter, 2016) thus leading to burnout.
When the actual or perceived ability of teachers to cope with high levels of stress
is diminished, burnout can result. Burnout is a chronic psychological syndrome
prompted by occupational stress and characterized by physical and mental exhaustion,
cynicism, and feelings of poor personal accomplishment (Chesak et al., 2019). Burnout is
of particular concern in the teaching profession as it is associated with reduced quality
of instruction and diminished ability to engage and teach effectively, both of which can
lead to potential student harm (Chesak et al., 2019).
The relationship between burnout and health is complex, in that poor health
contributes to burnout and burnout contributes to poor health (Maslach & Leiter, 2016).
Personal and organizational costs of burnout have led to proposals for various
intervention strategies, with a primary emphasis on intervention strategies that occur
on the individual level (Maslach & Leiter, 2016). Many of these individual strategies
have been adapted from other work done on stress, coping, and health, and one of the
3
most common recommendations include developing coping skills (Maslach & Leiter,
2016). Research on teacher stress has focused primarily on the relationship between
stress and burnout, but there has been little research done on the relationship between
stress and coping skills among teachers.
Significance of the Problem
Teacher stress is associated with many characteristics of the teaching profession,
including separation from other adults, inadequate opportunities for reflection, student
misbehavior, the profession's emotional needs, high workload, changes due to reform
efforts, inadequate salary or resources, and expectations from the school administrators
(Chesak et al., 2019). Teacher stress is a real concern as there is a well-established link
between job stress, burnout, and teacher attrition (Klassen, 2010).
Although statistics vary by region, studies show that 30% to 50% of new teachers
leave the teaching profession within the first five years of their career. Within the first
three years, 20% to 30% of new teachers leave the profession (Prilleltensky et al., 2016).
Employment data for the 2017-2018 school year from the Minnesota Staff Automated
Reporting System (STAR) found that more than 7,000 Minnesota public school teachers
from the 2016-2017 school year did not return to teach in the same school district in
2017-2018 (Wilder Research, 2019). Of the 7,010 teachers who did not return, 24.7
percent cited "personal reasons" as the reason for leaving (Wilder Research, 2019).
Employment data for the 2017-2018 school year also revealed that slightly more
than half (52.5%) of teachers holding an active teaching license in Minnesota are not
4
currently working as a teacher in a public school. Of the teachers holding an elementary
education license in Minnesota, 22.3% are not using it (Wilder Research, 2019). No data
was available on teachers holding a middle or secondary education license in
Minnesota.
Teacher attrition represents a potentially devastating loss of personnel and
resources at the school level, forcing schools to spend time and resources to rebuild
their staff (Ryan et al., 2017). Rather than allocating the money to students and
teachers, schools with high turnover must face costs in recruitment, re-training, and
retention efforts for new teachers (Ryan et al., 2017). Alternatively, districts may be
forced to place standard-license teachers outside of their licensure area to teach or hire
teachers with special permissions or out of compliance.
In Minnesota schools, elementary education is one area with a high number of
teachers working under special permissions or out of compliance (Wilder Research,
2019). During the 2017-2018 school year, 477 elementary education teachers worked
under special permissions or out of compliance (Wilder Research, 2019).
Whether for the protection of the physical and emotional health of teachers, for
the well-being of students, or for the improvement of the public education system, a
better understanding of perceived levels of stress and coping mechanism use among
teachers is essential.
5
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship between perceived levels of
stress and coping mechanism use among elementary school teachers.
Research Questions
1. What are the perceived levels of stress experienced by elementary school
teachers in Minnesota?
2. What coping mechanisms are used among elementary school teachers in
Minnesota?
3. What is the relationship between the perceived level of stress experienced by
elementary school teachers in Minnesota and the stress coping mechanisms
used?
Limitations
1. The sample from this study may not be representative of the general population
of elementary school teachers.
2. The time frame for data collection for this study will be limited to three weeks.
3. Financial resources for this study will be limited.
4. Data collection for this study will be dependent on honest responses to survey
questions.
5. Data collection for this study will take place during the COVID-19 pandemic.
6
Delimitations
1. Data collection for this study will be limited to elementary school teachers in
Minnesota.
2. The time frame for data collection for this study will be limited to three weeks.
Assumptions
1. Participants will understand the nature of all survey questions.
2. Participants will answer all questions honestly and to the best of their ability.
Definition of Terms
1. Attrition: A reduction or decrease in numbers, size or strength (Merriam-
Webster, n.d.).
2. Burnout: A psychological syndrome emerging as a prolonged response to chronic
interpersonal stressors on the job (Maslach & Leiter, 2016).
3. Coping: Any cognitive, emotional, or behavioral effort to address a potentially
harmful stressor (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988).
4. Occupational stress: An individual’s experience of psychological discomfort and
associated disorders that result from general working conditions (von der Embse
et al., 2019.
5. Protective factors: Attributes of the person or environment that enhance the
likelihood of positive outcomes for person and the system alike (Prilleltensky et
al., 2016).
7
6. Risk factors: Characteristics of the person or the environment that increase
chances of a negative outcome for the person or system (Prilleltensky et al.,
2016).
7. Stress: An imbalance between risk and protective factors (Prilleltensky et al.,
2016)
8
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship between perceived levels
of stress and coping mechanism use among elementary school teachers. The themes
presented in this chapter include stress, teacher stress, influences on occupational
stress, impact of occupational stress, and coping mechanisms.
Stress
The word stress as applied to the human condition was first made popular by
physiologist Hans Selye. Stress was defined as the non-specific response of the body to
any demand for change (The American Institute of Stress, n.d.). According to The
American Institute of Stress (n.d.), Selye’s theories on stress attracted considerable
attention and stress became a popular buzzword that completely ignored its original
definition. Stress is defined in many different ways. Classically, stress is defined as a
condition that seriously perturbs the physiological and psychological balance of an
individual (Franklin et al., 2012). The dominant model of stress among psychological
researchers today understands stress to result from a perceived imbalance between
demands and resources (McCarthy, 2019). Stress is often referred to as a “balance
model” (Meurs & Perrewé, 2011).
Stress is viewed from four main perspectives: as a stimulus, as a response, as an
interaction between a stimulus and a response, and as a transaction (Jain et al., 2013).
When stress is viewed as a transaction, it is not a factor that resides in the individual or
the environment, rather it is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals
9
interacting with their environment, making appraisals of those encounters, and
attempting to cope with the issues that come about (Jain et al., 2013). In this regard, an
environmental stimuli is not inherently a stressor. A stimuli only becomes a stressor
when individuals recognize it as a threat and believe it is beyond their ability to cope
with (Jain et al., 2013).
The term stress carries a negative connotation. It is generally accepted that
prolonged or intense stress can have a negative impact on an individual’s mental and
physical health (Johnson et al., 2005). In recent literature, however, there has been an
increased appreciation of the positive consequences of stress (Quick & Henderson,
2016). Stress with positive consequences is referred to as good stress or eustress, while
stress with negative consequences is sometimes referred to as bad stress or distress
(Quick & Henderson, 2016).
Teacher Stress
The teaching profession is known to be highly stressful (Johnson et al., 2005;
Kyriacou, 2001). The profession is characterized by numerous and varied challenges
including administrative burdens, long hours, classroom management difficulties, and
lack of autonomy (McCarthy, 2019). Occupational stress among teachers is referred to
as teacher stress. Teacher stress is often defined as the experience of negative or
unpleasant emotions resulting from aspects of the work as a teacher (Collie et al., 2012;
Kyriacou, 2001). It can also be defined as an imbalance between risk factors and
protective factors (Prilleltensky et al., 2016). Teacher stress is associated with numerous
10
characteristics of the profession, including separation from other adults, inadequate
opportunities for reflection, student misbehavior, the profession’s emotional needs,
high workload, changes due to reform efforts, inadequate salary or resources, and
expectations from school administrators (Chesak et al., 2019).
According to Kyriacou (2001), teacher stress results from a mismatch between
the pressures and demands made on educators and their ability to cope with those
demands. When these demands take a toll, job dissatisfaction, workplace fatigue,
burnout, and reduced occupational commitment result (McCarthy, 2019). Burnout is of
particular concern in the teaching profession as it is linked with reduced quality of
instruction and diminished ability to engage and teach effectively (Chesak et al., 2019).
High levels of teacher stress have a strong effect on the performance, career
decisions, physical and mental health, and overall job satisfaction of teachers (Jepson &
Forrest, 2006). Teachers’ job satisfaction is important as it influences performance,
commitment, absenteeism, physical and mental health, and overall wellbeing (Klassen,
2010). Within the teaching profession, job dissatisfaction leads to attrition, which is at
concerning levels (Chesak et al., 2019). In the United States, 8% of teachers leave the
profession each year, and studies show that 30% to 50% of new teachers leave the
teaching profession within the first five years of their career (Chesak et al., 2019; Kraft &
Papay, 2014; Prilleltensky et al., 2016).
Teacher stress is not unique to the United States. Research has yielded
consistent findings around the world, with approximately 20-25% of the teaching
11
workforce reporting high levels of stress (McCarthy, 2019). This holds true for 25% of
teachers in Great Britain and Italy, 20-22% in Malaysia and Germany, and 25-26% in
Australia (McCarthy, 2019). The actions of administration, the management style of the
school principal, and the school’s organizational climate can all affect a teacher’s sense
of well-being (Prilleltensky et al., 2016).
Influences on Occupational Stress
A broad set of occupational demands, along with environmental stressors, can
trigger the stress response (Quick & Henderson, 2016). In the workplace, occupational
stress is considered to result from a combination of high demands and low decision
latitude (Rosenthal & Alter, 2012; Quick & Henderson, 2016). Uncertainty about
workplace aspects and poorly managed conflict in the workplace are two additional
leading causes of occupational stress (Quick & Henderson, 2016).
The organizational environment for people-oriented professions, such as
teaching, is often shaped by various social, political, and economic factors that result in
work settings that are high in demands and low in resources (Maslach & Leiter, 2016).
Teachers spend less than 5% of their work time collaborating with peers, isolating them
from colleagues for much of the day (Scholastic and the Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation, 2012). According to the Economic Policy Institute, public school teachers’
weekly wages in 2015 were 17.0 percent lower than those of comparable workers
(Allegretto & Mishel, 2016). In addition, teachers often face significant social and
political scrutiny in regard to how they do their jobs (McCarthy, 2019).
12
When the demands of the organization seem out of balance with a sense of
personal control, tension can create a great amount of stress (Prilleltensky et al., 2016).
Teachers with high job demands and low resources are most vulnerable to stress and
the most at risk for lowered job satisfaction, greater burnout, and lowered occupational
commitment (Lambert et al., 2015).
In the last three decades, the United States has made dramatic changes in the
way it measures and evaluates teacher effectiveness (Ryan et al., 2017). The practice of
measuring teaching quality through student performance on standardized assessments
has become standard practice (Ryan et al., 2017). Test-based accountability policies
have begun to emerge from state departments of education as a way to evaluate
educator effectiveness, and some states use standardized test scores to make decisions
on teacher job performance, evaluation, tenure, and merit pay (von der Embse et al.,
2016). The changes in test-based accountability policies at the federal and state level
have contributed to increased stress among teachers (von der Embse et al., 2016, Ryan
et al., 2017).
Impact of Occupational Stress
Occupational stress was identified as one of the top ten occupational health
problems in the United States in the 1980s (Quick & Henderson, 2016). Since then, the
experience of workplace stress has been subject to a large amount of research. It is now
generally accepted that prolonged or intense occupational stress can have a negative
impact on an individual’s mental and physical health (Johnson et al., 2005).
13
Occupational stress is a known health risk for a range of disorders and diseases,
including psychological, behavioral, and medical (Quick & Henderson, 2016).
Occupational stress is not an acute condition that can be cured, but rather a chronic
condition that requires an understanding of the epidemiology of the problem (Quick &
Henderson, 2016). The epidemiology of occupational stress is considered in three
stages: 1) the causes of stress, 2) the stress response, and 3) the consequences of the
life history (Quick & Henderson, 2016).
A thorough literature review conducted by Rosenthal and Alter (2012) revealed a
strong association between occupational stress and blood pressure elevation and
cardiovascular disease. Research has linked cardiovascular disease to working conditions
such as social isolation, shift work, chemicals, and physical hazards (Quick & Henderson,
2016). The two lead presenting complaints associated with stress are anxiety and
depression (Mosadeghrad, 2014, Quick & Henderson, 2016). High levels of stress have
been shown to impair attention, working memory, and decision making (Chesak et al.,
2019).
In addition to health, occupational stress has been linked with numerous adverse
professional outcomes. In the teaching profession, these outcomes include burnout,
absenteeism, poor performance, low levels of job satisfaction, and eventually the
decision to leave the profession (Klassen, 2010, Ryan et al., 2017). Teachers
experiencing burnout can negatively influence colleagues by contributing to increased
personal conflict and work disruption (Chesak et al., 2019). Burned-out teachers are less
14
likely to manage challenges in the classroom, leading to lower levels of on-task behavior
in students. A negative feedback loop can develop in which difficult student behaviors
contribute to an escalation in emotional exhaustion of the teacher, leading to worse
student behaviors (Chesak et al., 2019).
Coping Mechanisms
Coping is defined as any cognitive, emotional, or behavioral effort to address a
potentially harmful stressor (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). It is the set of intentional, goal-
directed efforts people engage in to minimize the physical, psychological or social harm
of an event or situation (Carroll, 2013). Coping mechanisms are essential to minimize
the impact of stress and determine the degree of resilience or susceptibility (Franklin et
al., 2012).
Psychologists typically distinguish between two main types of coping strategies.
The first, termed problem-focused coping, is aimed at problem solving or doing
something to change the stressful situation (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, McCarthy, 2019).
The second, termed emotion-focused coping, is aimed at reducing or managing the
emotions that are associated with stress (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, McCarthy, 2019).
While most stressors elicit both types of coping, problem-focused coping tends to
predominate when people feel that something constructive can be done. When people
feel the stressor is something that must be endured, emotion-focused coping tends to
predominate (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980).
15
Coping styles are often referred to as active or passive. Coping is referred to as
active when an individual attempts to deal with a challenge, faces fears, participates in
problem solving, and seeks social supports (Franklin et al., 2012). Passive coping involves
denial, avoidance of conflicts, suppression of emotions, and behavioral disengagement.
Coping style varies between individuals and situations and play a role in determining
whether stress-related disorders develop (Franklin et al., 2012).
16
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship between perceived levels
of stress and coping mechanism use among elementary school teachers. This chapter
describes the research design, subject selection, instrumentation, data collection, and
data analysis procedures used for this study.
Research Questions
1. What are the perceived levels of stress experienced by elementary school
teachers in Minnesota?
2. What coping mechanisms are used among elementary school teachers in
Minnesota?
3. What is the relationship between the perceived level of stress experienced by
elementary school teachers in Minnesota and the stress coping mechanisms
used?
Research Design
A cross-sectional, correlational design was used in this study. Cross-sectional
studies are designed to collect data at a specific point in time. A correlational study
examines the relationships or associations between variables. This study used a
correlational design to assess the relationship between the perceived levels of stress
and coping mechanisms used among elementary school teachers.
17
Subject Selection
Participants for this study consisted of a convenience sample of public
elementary school teachers in Minnesota. According to the Minnesota Department of
Education (2019), there are 999 schools in Minnesota with a school classification of type
10 (public elementary). This classification includes Pre-Kindergarten through grade six.
Contact information for the organization head (principal, superintendent, director,
etc.) of every public elementary school can be found on the Minnesota Department of
Education’s website. The researcher used this list to contact the organization head of all
999 public elementary schools in Minnesota via email. The researcher asked the
organization head to forward their email containing the survey link on to all
licensed teachers at their school.
According to the Minnesota Department of Education (2019), the population of
public elementary school teachers in Minnesota is approximately 25,000. For this study
sample to be representative of the total population, a sample size of 378 was needed
(Krejcie & Morgan, 1970).
Instrumentation
The first section of the survey measured the perceived levels of stress among
participants using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein,
1983). The PSS is a 14-item survey used to measure the perception of stress, or the
degree to which situations are seen to be stressful in one’s life (Cohen et al., 1983). The
survey questions ask participants to indicate how often they felt or thought a certain
18
way about life changes, hassles, irritations, etc. during the last month. Participants are
asked how often they have been upset because of something that happened, how often
they have felt nervous and “stressed”, and how often they have been angered because
of things that happened that were outside of their control. Participants are also asked to
indicate how often they have found that they could not cope with all the things they had
to do, how often they have found themselves thinking about things they have to
accomplish, and how often they have felt difficulties were piling up so high that they
could not overcome them (Cohen et al., 1983). Responses are measured using a 4-point
response system ranging from never to very often, and individual scores range from 0 to
40, with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress (Cohen et al., 1983).
The PSS has been proven to possess reliability and validity (Cohen et al., 1983).
The PSS was validated on three samples, two of college students and one of participants
in a community smoking-cessation program (Cohen et al., 1983). Coefficient alpha
reliability for the PSS in these samples was .84, .85, and .86, respectively. The test-retest
correlation in the sample of college students who were retested after two days was .85
(Cohen et al., 1983).
The second section of the survey identified the extent to which coping
mechanisms were being utilized using the Brief COPE (Carver, 1997). The Brief COPE is
an abbreviated form of a previously published measure called the COPE inventory
(Carver et al., 1989). The full COPE is a 60-item instrument with 4 items per scale, while
the Brief COPE consists of 14 two-item subscales (Carver, 1997). Two scales from the full
19
COPE were omitted because they had not proven useful in previous work, three scales
that had been proven to be problematic in previous work were refocused slightly, and
one scale was added to create the Brief COPE (Carver, 1997). The two scales omitted
from the full COPE were Restraint Coping and Suppression of Competing Activities. The
Positive Reinterpretation and Growth scale became Positive Reframing, the scale
originally termed Focus on and Venting of Emotions became Venting, and the Mental
Disengagement scale became Self-Distraction. The final step in item selection was the
addition of the Self-Blame scale. Self-blame was added because research using other
coping measures has found it to be a predictor of poor adjustment under stress (Carver,
1997). Data support the internal reliability and validity of the abbreviated scales (Carver,
1997). The Brief COPE was initially validated on a sample of 168 survivors of Hurricane
Andrew. A reliability analyses revealed alpha reliabilities that all met or exceeded the
value of .50, which is the value regarded as minimally acceptable (Carver, 1997). The
Brief COPE includes 28 items and measures 14 conceptually differentiable coping
strategies. Some of these strategies are known to be generally adaptive, while others
are known to be problematic (Carver, 1997). The Brief COPE provides researchers a
quick way to assess potentially important coping responses (Carver, 1997). Each of the
14 subscales is comprised of 2 items, and total scores on each subscale range from 2.00
(minimum) to 8.00 (maximum). Higher scores indicate higher utilization of a coping
strategy.
20
The third and final section of the survey consisted of a self-report questionnaire.
Demographic variables of participants including gender, age, and race were collected.
This section contained structured items that asked the respondents to choose from the
possible answers provided.
Data Collection
Upon approval by the Institutional Review Board (See Appendix A), the
researcher contacted the organization head of all public elementary schools in
Minnesota via email. The researcher explained who they were and why they were
conducting the research. The researcher asked the organization head to forward their
email containing the survey link on to all licensed teachers at their school. Participants
were given two weeks to respond to the survey. After two weeks, a reminder email was
sent to all organizational heads and an additional week to respond was given. Data was
collected using Qualtrics Online Survey Software
©
.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics including frequencies, percentages and measures of central
tendency and dispersion were used to analyze the summated scores of the PSS and Brief
COPE Inventory and the responses to the demographic questionnaire. A Pearson
correlation was used to assess the relationship between perceived levels of stress and
coping mechanisms. All data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS
) version 27, a software package used for interactive statistical analysis.
21
Table 1
Table of Specifications
Survey Items
Level of Data
Analysis
-Individual items
of the PSS
-Total
summated
scores of the
PSS
-Ordinal (individual
items)
-Interval/Ratio
(summated scores)
-Descriptive
statistics
including
frequencies,
percentages,
and measures
of central
tendency and
dispersion
-Individual items
of the Brief
COPE Inventory
-Total
summated
scores of the
Brief COPE
Inventory
-Ordinal (individual
items)
-Interval/Ratio
(summated scores)
-Descriptive
statistics
including
frequencies,
percentages,
and measures
of central
tendency and
dispersion
-Total
Summated
Scores of PSS
-Total
Summated
Scores of the
Brief COPE
Inventory
-Interval/Ratio
-Pearson
correlation
22
Summary
Data for this study was collected using a survey and a convenience sample of
public elementary school teachers in Minnesota. Perceived levels of stress were
measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Coping mechanisms used were
identified using the Brief COPE Inventory. Data from the PSS and Brief COPE Inventory
was analyzed using descriptive statistics, and a Pearson correlation was used to assess
the relationship between perceived level of stress and coping mechanisms used. All data
was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS
) version 27, a
software package used for interactive statistical analysis.
23
Chapter Four: Results
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between perceived
levels of stress and coping mechanism use among elementary school teachers. Data
collected was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS
) version 27.
The study answered the following research questions:
1. What are the perceived levels of stress experienced by elementary school
teachers in Minnesota?
2. What coping mechanisms are used among elementary school teachers in
Minnesota?
3. What is the relationship between the perceived level of stress experienced
by elementary school teachers in Minnesota and the stress coping
mechanisms used?
Participants
A total of 600 participants initially responded to the survey; however, 180
surveys were discarded due to missing data. A total of 420 survey responses were
collected and used for analysis.
Demographics
Among the 420 public elementary school teachers who participated in this study,
the majority (86.9%) were female. The teachers surveyed were predominately White
(97.1%) and not of Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin (96.4%). A slight majority (58.8%) of
24
these teachers have completed a master’s degree. As shown in Table 2, the age of the
teachers surveyed varied greatly, as did the number of years they have been in the
teaching profession.
Table 2
Demographics of the Sample
Characteristic
n
%
Gender
Male
51
12.1
Female
365
86.9
Non-binary
1
0.2
Other
1
0.2
Age
20-24 years old
27
6.4
25-29 years old
47
11.2
30-34 years old
62
14.8
35-39 years old
59
14.0
40-44 years old
57
13.6
45-49 years old
51
12.1
50-54 years old
57
13.6
55+
60
14.3
25
Characteristic
n
%
Years in the teaching profession
Less than 1
13
3.1
1-2
28
6.7
3-5
43
10.2
6-10
80
19.0
11-15
70
16.7
16-20
63
15.0
21+
123
29.3
Ethnicity
Not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
405
96.4
Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano
2
0.5
Puerto Rican
1
0.2
Another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
8
1.9
Race
White
408
97.1
Black or African American
3
0.7
Other Asian
1
0.2
Some other race
4
1.0
More than one race
2
0.5
26
Characteristic
n
%
Highest educational level
Bachelor's Degree
165
39.3
Master's Degree
247
58.8
Doctorate
4
1.0
What are the perceived levels of stress experienced by elementary school teachers in
Minnesota?
Individual stress scores for participants in this study were obtained by reversing
the codes on the seven positive items and summing across all 14 items on the PSS.
Results indicated that the average stress score for teachers surveyed was 27.04 (SD =
8.25).
What coping mechanisms are used among elementary school teachers in Minnesota?
Results from the Brief COPE indicated that the coping mechanism most used was
“Acceptance” (M = 5.94; SD = 1.33), which includes practices such as accepting the
reality of a stressful situation and learning to live with it (Carver, 1997). Other commonly
used coping mechanisms included “Active coping” (M = 5.85; SD = 1.29), which involves
concentrating efforts on doing something about a situation and taking action to try to
make the situation better, and “Planning” (M = 5.80; SD = 1.35, which entails trying to
come up with a strategy about what to do and thinking hard about what steps to take
(Carver, 1997). The coping mechanism utilized the least was “Denial” (M = 2.73; SD =
27
1.26), which involves saying “this isn’t real” to oneself and refusing to believe something
has happened (Carver, 1997). The mean scores obtained for all 14 subscales are
illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for the Brief COPE Subscales
Subscale
n
Mean
SD
Acceptance
419
5.94
1.33
Active coping
419
5.85
1.29
Planning
418
5.80
1.35
Positive reframing
419
5.68
1.37
Use of informational support
420
5.47
1.61
Emotional support
420
5.45
1.54
Self-distraction
418
5.38
1.39
Humor
420
4.82
1.72
Religion
419
4.81
2.08
Venting
417
4.78
1.44
Self-blame
419
4.36
1.63
Substance use
420
3.03
1.61
Behavioral disengagement
420
2.95
1.25
Denial
416
2.73
1.26
28
What is the relationship between the perceived level of stress experienced by
elementary school teachers in Minnesota and the stress coping mechanisms used?
Pearson correlations were conducted to assess the relationship between
perceived levels of stress and coping mechanisms. Results of the Pearson correlations
revealed weak, negative, statistically significant relationships between total stress
scores and three coping mechanisms, “Active coping” (r = -.126), “Positive reframing” (r
= -.286), and “Religion” (r = -.152). Conversely, weak, positive, statistically significant
relationships were found between total stress scores and six coping mechanisms, “Self-
distraction” (r = .227), “Denial” (r = .260), “Substance use” (r = .343), “Emotional
support” (r = .167), “Use of informational support” (r = .174), and “Planning” (r = .107).
Moderate, positive, statistically significant relationships were found between total
stress scores and three coping mechanisms, “Behavioral disengagement” (r = .520),
“Venting” (r = .460), and “Self-blame” (r = .488). There was no statistically significant
relationship between total stress scores and “Humor” or “Acceptance”. Results of the
Pearson correlations can be found in Table 4.
Table 4
Significant Correlations Between Total Stress Scores and Coping Mechanisms
Coping mechanism
r-score
p-value
Strength
Self-distraction
.227
.000
Weak
Active coping
-.126
.011
Weak
29
Coping mechanism
r-score
p-value
Strength
Denial
.260
.000
Weak
Substance use
.343
.000
Weak
Emotional support
.167
.001
Weak
Use of informational support
.174
.000
Weak
Behavioral disengagement
.520
.000
Moderate
Venting
.460
.000
Moderate
Positive reframing
-.286
.000
Weak
Planning
.107
.031
Weak
Religion
-.152
.002
Weak
Self-blame
.488
.000
Moderate
Summary
The purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between perceived
levels of stress and coping mechanisms used among elementary school teachers. On a
scale of 0-40, with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress, teachers surveyed
reported an average stress score of 27.04. The most common coping mechanisms
utilized by teachers who participated in this study were Acceptance, Active coping, and
Planning. Significant relationships were found between total stress scores and the
following coping mechanisms: Self-distraction, Active coping, Denial, Substance use,
Emotional support, Use of informational support, Behavioral disengagement, Venting,
30
Positive reframing, Planning, Religion, and Self-blame. No significant relationship was
found between total stress scores and Humor or Acceptance.
31
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation
Summary
This study consisted of a convenience sample of public elementary school
teachers in Minnesota. Participants were asked to complete a 48-item online survey
that was distributed via email. Data was collected using Qualtrics Online Survey
Software
©
and analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS
) version
27.
The 48-item survey consisted of three sections. The first section contained the
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), a 14-item survey used to measure the perception of stress.
The second section consisted of the Brief COPE, a 28-item survey that measures 14
conceptually differentiable coping strategies. The last section of the survey consisted of
6 demographic questions, including gender, age, years in the teaching profession,
ethnicity, race, and highest level of education completed.
A total of 420 survey responses were collected and used for analysis. Among the
teachers surveyed, the majority were non-Hispanic, white females. On a scale of 0 to 40,
the average stress score of teachers surveyed was 27.04. The coping mechanism most
used among teachers who participated in this study was “Acceptance”. This study found
weak, negative, statistically significant relationships between total stress scores and
three coping mechanisms (“Active coping”, “Positive reframing”, and “Religion”), weak,
positive, statistically significant relationships between total stress scores and six coping
mechanisms (“Self-distraction”, “Denial”, “Substance use”, “Emotional support”, “Use of
32
informational support”, and “Planning”), and moderate, positive, statistically significant
relationships between total stress scores and three coping mechanisms (“Behavioral
disengagement”, “Venting”, and “Self-blame”).
While the PSS does not provide a breakdown between low and high levels of
stress, an average stress score of 27.04 indicates that teachers who participated in this
study are experiencing stress on a relatively high level. According to this study, the
coping mechanism most utilized by teachers is “Acceptance”. This means that teachers
often accept the reality of stressful situations and learn to live with them. This doesn’t
come as a surprise, as the prevailing norms within people-oriented professions such as
teaching are to be selfless and put others’ needs first; to work long hours and do
whatever it takes to help a student. While we can’t conclude from this study whether
higher levels of stress are a result of certain coping mechanisms, we can conclude that
perceived levels of stress are associated with both adaptive and problematic coping
mechanisms.
Recommendations for Health Educators
Findings from this study confirm the prevalence of stress and the use of both
adaptive and problematic coping mechanisms among elementary school teachers.
Health educators should know that perceived levels of stress are associated with coping
mechanism use among teachers. Understanding this association provides health
educators with opportunities to design new interventions and implement evidence-
based programs for teachers. Interventions should include education on stress
33
reduction and how adaptive and problematic coping mechanisms are associated with
levels of stress.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study provides a snapshot of the perceived levels of stress and coping
mechanism use among elementary school teachers. To gain a better understanding of
the relationship between these variables, future researchers should examine
elementary school teachers over the course of a school year. This study was limited to
public elementary school teachers in Minnesota. Future research should examine public
elementary school teachers in a larger population. Lastly, future research should
examine the difference in coping mechanism use among those who are experiencing
high levels of stress and those who are experiencing low levels of stress. The more we
understand about the relationship between perceived levels of stress and coping
mechanism use, the better equipped we are to support the physical and emotional
health of teachers, the well-being of students, and the improvement of the public
education system.
34
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Appendices
41
Appendix A
Institutional Review Board Letter of Approval
42