An Androgynous God: Beardless Dionysus in Ancient Greek and

An Androgynous God:

Beardless Dionysus in Ancient Greek and

Roman Art

Dorian Hansen

Susquehanna University

***

Like all Greek gods, Dionysus fills a plethora of roles. To the

ancient Greeks, he is the god of wine, teaching humans the wonders

of the grape. But he is also a god of fertility, intoxication, and

madness.

He is a god of contradictions; in one myth destructive and

causing chaos, in another, an innocent child taken and dismembered

by jealous titans. Dionysus is also considered a foreign god and

relatively new god, hailing from the East, which increases his

contradictory nature. According to classicist Christopher Faraone,

Dionysus’ name is mentioned in tablets dating from 1250 BCE.

These varying roles lead to a variety of representations. The two most

common are a bearded, fully clothed, young man and the beardless,

half-clad or naked, effeminate youth, with long locks. The common

denominator is his iconography of an ivy crown and thyrsus staff, a

ritualistic staff covered with ivy and topped with a pinecone. This

essay investigates the origin and significance of his beardless

depiction. It appears his beardless depiction originated from the

depiction of him on the Parthenon’s pediment and exploded in

popularity during vase painting in fifth century BCE. The beardless

Dionysus was also depicted in theatre plays, such as Euripides’ The

Bacchae published posthumously in 406 BCE.

The beardless

Dionysus came to represent a variety of roles in

fifth century pottery

and theatre such as Dionysus as a son of Zeus, peaceful Dionysus,

and effeminate Dionysus.

The Terracotta Oinochoe: Chous attributed to the Eretria Painter

is one example of a bearded Dionysus (figure 1). The jug depicts the

Hansen 147

procession of Hephaestus back to Olympus with Dionysus and two

satyrs accompanying him. The two gods ride a donkey, one of the

many animals Dionysus uses as his steeds, they are both crowned

with ivy and fully robed. Both have beards, but Dionysus’ is longer.

Another way to tell the gods apart is by the drinking cup Dionysus

holds and the trade tools Hephaestus clings to. This depiction is from

430 to 420 BCE Greece, and in depictions of this specific myth

Dionysus remains unshaven. But after the construction of the

Parthenon was completed in 432 BCE, something changes about

Dionysus’ appearance in

fifth century pottery.

Prior to the construction of the Parthenon, Dionysus in

Greek and Roman art was generally represented as an older, more

paternal god, or an infant, yet in the east pediment he is seen as a

young beardless man reclining in front of Helios’ horses. And for

what seems to be the first time, he is depicted as fully nude.

According to classicist Cornelia Isler-Kerényi, the sculptor possibly

wanted to emphasize the beauty of Dionysus.

His youthful nature

defines him as the son of Zeus, and by association this means he is

the brother of Apollo.

Various parallels can be made between the

brothers, such as their roles as punishers in the stories of Dionysus

punishing Pentheus and Apollo punishing Marsyas. Their similarities

continue in their roles as enforcers of their father’s rule. This role in

particular was seen after the Persian Wars (499 – 449 BCE). This role

for Apollo is represented by his presence on the west pediment of

the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Phidias, the sculptor of the cult

statue of Zeus for the temple, also created the statue of Athena at

the Parthenon. Dionysus filled this role in Athens.

It would be easier

to link the appearances of Dionysus and Apollo if the statue of

Apollo on the east pediment of the Parthenon was not so degraded.

However, it is possible his pediment statue was beardless because

elsewhere on the Parthenon, on the frieze specifically, a beardless

Apollo is shown sitting next to Poseidon. The beardless nature of the

two brothers separates them from the father-like figures of Zeus and

Poseidon who both sport beards. Another one of Zeus’s sons,

Hephaestus, retains his beard because he is the ancestor of the

mythical kings of Athens, thus giving him the same patriarchal role

as his father.

The iconography of Dionysus at the Parthenon is as

interesting and diverse as the god himself. His presence at the birth

of Athena goes back to the

sixth century, but he is often at a distance

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physically. Even during the birth scene of Athena on the eastern

pediment, he turns away from the main event, expressing an inner

distance. Aphrodite, who is on the north side of the same pediment,

is also looking away from the scene towards her own sanctuary. Isler-

Kerényi, in her 2015 book Dionysus in Classical Athens: An

Understanding Through Images, offers this interpretation: “Perhaps both

Aphrodite and Dionysos are so little impressed by the birth of

Athena because the scope of their power is larger and their influence

on the world and on human beings is older and reaches beyond

Athens.”

This representation of Dionysus embodies his more

peaceful epithet, lysios. Another element of his iconography that

reinforces this is his panther skin, which represents Dionysus as a

hunter. The hunter who defeats the predator, the panther, which is a

symbol for the eastern empire of Persia. This depiction fits the socio-

political context of Pericles’ peace policy and the end of the war with

Persia; this peace policy was strictly anti-Persian.

This is evidenced

by two military campaigns he sent to Persian controlled Cyprus and

Egypt in 460 BCE.

If a peace treaty between Athens and Persia was

indeed previously established around 465 BCE, then Pericles

violated it.

Dionysus is represented as a heroic figure vanquishing

Persia. Along with embodying the ideal of peace and being the son

of Zeus, this beardless depiction of Dionysus embodies an idealized

young male body. The perfect mix of beardless immaturity and

muscular maturity, conjures up images of the idealized body of the

young athlete often depicted in Greek art.

While this depiction of Dionysus did not immediately impact

Greek art, especially sculpture, it did have a lasting impact on his

form a couple decades later in vase painting around and after 430

BCE. One of the best examples of this switch comes from a work

attributed to the Dinos Painter, a Calyx Krater, depicting Dionysus

sitting relaxed and half-naked (figure 2). The reverse side depicts

Hera waiting to be released by Hephaestus. The direct contrast

between these two scenes continues to show Dionysus as a peaceful

liberator. A panther cub below him has a playful posture conveying

peace. The cub possibly stands for a tamed Asia, a metaphor not lost

on the fact that the war with Persia ended a couple decades earlier.

This suggests the idea of peace befalling the Aegean, a peace that in

Dinos’s time, who was active 430 to 400 BCE, would have been

disturbed by the Peloponnesian War started in 431 BCE.

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course, youthful Dionysus still appeared alongside the mature more

father-like bearded Dionysus, as seen with the Calyx Krater by the

Kadmos Painter made between 450 – 400 BCE. A bearded, chiton-

wearing Dionysus shakes hands with the beardless Apollo wearing a

himation. Around them satyrs dance and play music. There is an

omphalos, a stone representing Delphi, and above it is a palm tree

representing Delos, both major sanctuaries of Apollo. Dionysus

wears distinct boots signifying that he has traveled far. The boots and

chiton would have been the perfect clothes for traveling, so it is

implied he was returning from his travels in the East. Clearly,

Dionysus represents the non-Greek world and Apollo, dressed like

an Athenian citizen in his himation, represents the Greek world. The

two shaking hands represents a peace between Greece and the East.

The various versions of the peaceful Dionysus indicate that the

image of the god was altered by various artists based on their needs,

an ironic alteration considering his role as the god of transformation.

Dionysus has been depicted as a liberator, a peace maker, and

executor of his father’s will. He is also depicted in a state of pure

bliss, as seen in a Calyx Krater by the Pronomos Painter made in 400

BCE, which shows Dionysus surrounded by his followers, the

maenads and satyrs. Maenads are fervent female followers of

Dionysus who are often depicted in his entourage. Also a part of

Dionysus’ entourage, Satyrs are Greek mythological figures who are

men with the ears and tail of a horse. The work by the Pronomos

Painter is indicative of changes made to Dionysian subject matter.

After the fifth century BCE, a bearded Dionysus on pottery would

only appear escorting Hephaestus to Mount Olympus, perhaps

because in this myth Dionysus and Hephaestus are both affirmed as

part of the Pantheon.

Similar to how beardless Dionysus in the

Parthenon represented Dionysus as a son of Zeus, the bearded

version distinctly separates him from his status as a son by showing

him as an older man. Blissful Dionysus is often depicted half or even

completely naked, and when the god is standing, he is often

supported by Ariadne, Heracles, a satyr, or Eros. When he is depicted

under the influence, it is not referencing a specific myth, but rather

his drunken, happy, and liberated characteristics.

The depiction of

drunk Dionysus came with repercussions: the procession of

Dionysus and his followers disappeared. After around 450 to 430

Hansen 150

BCE, his followers engaged in other activities like playing music;

satyrs could not be mistaken for citizens or actors and women were

no longer human.

The transition from showing to not showing the

procession can be seen in one of the earliest beardless depictions of

Dionysus, an Athenian Calyx-Krater. This vessel is from the second

half of the fifth century BCE. It is an earlier depiction because the

satyrs likely represented actors based off their actions on the krater.

Around 430 BCE, the figures shown with Dionysus ceased acting as

stand-ins for real people and instead acted as the personification of

Bacchic revelry.

Possibly, fifth century BCE vase painters wanted

to move away from the depiction of a god who acts as a punisher or

as keeping order. They wanted a god who embodied hope and joy,

an apt subject matter for the symposium.

The Greek symposium was a gathering reserved for upper-

class men and was usually saved for special occasions such as athletic

victories. This tradition started around 700 BCE but remained

popular for hundreds of years afterwards.

Men laid around

drinking, listening to music, and engaging in intellectual debate.

Women were excluded from participating unless they provided

entertainment. These women, often prostitutes known as hetairai,

were trained in dance, music, and the intricacies of aristocratic

culture.

The majority of pottery discussed in this study are kraters,

large mixing bowls for water and wine. Kraters come in all shapes

and sizes; the two shapes mentioned here are bell, aptly named for it

looks like an upside-down bell, and calyx, named after the part of a

flower that opens. Kraters were often too heavy to move once filled,

so they were often centerpieces in symposiums themselves and were

used as a sort of refill station for amphorae.

Much of the pottery

depicting Dionysus was used to store or serve wine at symposiums.

The oinochoe mentioned earlier functioned as a jug. Dionysus was

often depicted as a symposiast himself because of his role as the god

of wine (figure 3). The Dinos, a drinking cup, painted by the Dinos

painter, active from 430 to 400 BCE, is one of the earliest examples

of the young and beardless Dionysus represented as a symposiast.

This was also a common motif in southern Italian vase painting.

The symposiast Dionysus was another representation of Bacchic

bliss.

The Terracotta Bell-Krater attributed to Python, 350 to 325

BCE, shows one example of the relaxed symposiast Dionysus (figure

Hansen 151

4). The krater depicts Dionysus sitting on one side, held up

fantastically by a decorative tendril. While he is not laying down like

the typical symposiast, any position where Dionysus sits represents

the symposiast Dionysus. This Dionysus has a bare chest and a robe

almost pulled down to his waist, furthering his casual manner. He

has long hair and no beard. He is identified as Dionysus through his

crown and staff. This krater is from a Grecian culture in Southern

Italy. Red-figure pottery was made by Greek colonists in southern

Italy; this particular bell-krater is from a region called Lucania.

The

iconography of Dionysus was brought to Italy through vases

imported by Etruscan farmers.

The Etruscan deity Fufluns is

regarded as the Etruscan Dionysus.

The depiction of Fufluns

remains as a beardless, effeminate youth. As seen on an Etruscan

bronze mirror, engraved with a scene of Semele embracing Fufluns

as a satyr and Apulu (Apollo) look on, Fufluns is short and beardless

compared to the stately Semele and Apulu. According to classicist

Larissa Bonfante, “The youth, effeminacy or ambiguous quality of

Dionysus is, of course, a Greek tradition.”

This claim is supported

by the linguistic interpretation of a Homeric hymn in which the name

Dionysus literally means son of Zeus, showing that his youth is an

important characteristic.

This indicates the Etruscan religion was

heavily inspired by the Grecian religion and the spread of beardless

Dionysus. Elsewhere in Italy, specifically in a Roman context,

Dionysus also represented the ideal of Bacchic bliss presented by the

symposiast Dionysus. The depiction of a youthful, beardless

Dionysus in Roman imperial period sculpture, starting in 27 BCE, is

sometimes nude. Not only does his nudity show that Dionysus is

completely relaxed, but it also shows that he is a seductive character,

enamoring not just Ariadne, but all those who look upon him.

One

example of this Dionysus from the Roman imperial period is the

Marble Statue of Dionysos Seated on a Panther from first to third

century

CE (figure 5). This statue shows a young beardless Dionysus who is

nude, with a short animal pelt draped over his shoulder. He has long

hair and is sitting on top of a panther reclined ever-so-slightly, while

holding grapes. There is an inscription on the base that reveals this

four-foot-tall statue sat upon an altar to Serapis and Isis.

Possibly,

the Dionysus depicted in this statue is similar to the Dionysus seen

on Roman sarcophagi, meaning that this Dionysus represents the

mysterious and wild nature of the afterlife.

Another example of

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beardless Dionysus from the Roman imperial period is the Hope

Dionysos from 27 BCE to 68 CE (figure 6). Interestingly, this

Dionysus is a Roman adaptation of a Greek bronze work from the

fourth century BCE. Dionysus is beardless, young, and standing

contrapposto with one arm outstretched. This outstretched arm

seems to be supported by a smaller female figure modeled after an

archaic maiden. It is unknown whether the original had this figure

too or if she was added later for support. This sculpture is large and

made of marble, standing close to seven feet tall. Dionysus wears

animal skin, a short chiton, and boots. This outfit represents his

return from his travels in the East. The spread of chiton-wearing

Dionysus from Greece to Rome centuries later would attest to the

popularity of beardless Dionysus. This version of Dionysus also

appears in the iconic play The Bacchae.

Beardless Dionysus appears in theater plays as well. The

audience must have recognized beardless and youthful Dionysus on

the stage, attesting to the popularity of the iconography observed so

far.

Only three examples exist of how Dionysus would have been

represented in theatre from the

fifth century BCE: Cratinus’

Dionysalexandros, Aristophanes’ The Frogs, and Euripides’ The Bacchae.

The most important of these three is the Dionysus of Euripides’ The

Bacchae because the god’s androgyny is important to the message of

the play. The Bacchae has become one of the most famous examples

of Greek theatre still taught routinely in universities across the world.

It is a retelling of the punishment of Pentheus, a topic seen in vases

before. Dionysus’ appearance in the play was surely influenced by the

iconography of the day. Then, the sheer success of the play likely

influenced the imagery in the centuries following.

Of course, the

imagery on a vase painting of Pentheus’ death is different than what

is on stage; Dionysus is young and naked, but we cannot assume he

was also naked on stage. The Dionysus on stage likely had long hair

and wore a short chiton and boots, perfect for acting and traveling.

He also would have worn an animal skin to indicate his return from

Asia. For the purposes of this essay, the most important part of this

representation of Dionysus is his femininity. In the play, Pentheus

directly calls the god effeminate: “Your curls are long. You do not

wrestle, I take it. And what fair skin you have—you must take care

of it—no daylight complexion; no, it comes from the night when you

hunt Aphrodite with your beauty.”

Additionally, Dionysus appears

Hansen 153

effeminate as he is the only son of Zeus to wear a short chiton with

animal skin similar to the goddess Artemis.

The Bacchae conjured up

a variety of other associations with the audience, such as the animal

skin which would have reminded them of gigantomachic Dionysus ,

a heroic role from Gigantomachy, the historic battle between the

Titans and Olympians for control over Mount Olympus. This

reference adds a layer to the drama of The Bacchae because the

audience would have immediately recognized gigantomachic

Dionysus, who fought for the order of Zeus. This Dionysian role

justifies the punishment of Pentheus for the greater good.

Euripides’ The Bacchae represents a series of dualities between

Dionysus and Pentheus. Dionysus represents wilderness and

femininity, while Pentheus represents civilization and masculinity.

Pentheus displays a strict world view, fueled by hubris, which he is

warned about at the beginning of the story by the prophet Tiresias.

One of Pentheus’ first observations of Dionysus is his femininity,

and he takes notice of Dionysus’ long curly hair, soft body, and pale

skin, all markers of femininity in this time and context.

Shortly after

meeting him, Pentheus suggests that Dionysus, who is disguised as a

follower of Dionysus, deserves punishment. Dionysus asks what the

punishment will be and Pentheus replies, “First of all I shall cut off

your girlish curls.”

In The Bacchae, Dionysus is the god of

metamorphosis. He transforms Pentheus and Thebes, as the former

wants to see what the maenads on the mountain are doing. Dionysus

convinces Pentheus that he must dress up as a woman in order to

safely spy on the women. Pentheus is not convinced without being

put into a trance by Dionysus. Dionysus enacts his revenge plot

because no matter what, the women will attack Pentheus, and he will

die dressed shamefully as a woman.

To quote classicist Charles Paul

Segal’s interpretation of Pentheus’ crossdressing, “The robing

transforms Pentheus from king to scapegoat, male to female, human

to beast-victim.”

This act reveals that although the two are

opposites, Dionysus is actually a mirror to what lies below Pentheus’

mask of civilization and masculinity. Segal suggests that this scene is

Dionysus putting a mirror to Pentheus’ face and revealing a core

truth about him.

At the core, Dionysus is Pentheus’ alter ego.

Interestingly, Pentheus’ death reflects the way that, in another myth,

Dionysus was torn limb from limb by Titans.

This mirror argument

is strengthened by the fact that Pentheus puts on a blonde wig during

Hansen 154

the cross-dressing scene, which is the same hair color Dionysus has

in the opening scene, “On his head he wears a wreath of ivy, and his

long blonde curls ripple down over his shoulders.”

Euripides

possibly wanted to draw attention to the multiplicity of identity and

how every person has sides that may contradict and which they

might want to conceal. By depicting Pentheus appearing similar to

Dionysus and even dying like him, Euripides shows that there is a

side to Pentheus that is closely related to Dionysus. Interestingly,

Ovid’s Metamorphoses, which was finished a couple of centuries later,

around 8 CE, makes no mention of the cross-dressing scene.

This

seems odd considering the book’s theme of transformation. Instead,

Ovid focuses on the transformation of who rules the city. The

section ends with the worship of Dionysus enveloping Thebes, a

successful usurp of Pentheus.

However, in Ovid’s retelling,

Dionysus’ femininity is mentioned in passing by Pentheus saying,

“the dragon's part was to kill brave settlers. Yours is to banish

effeminate eunuchs and save your inherited honor,” and “His

gleaming armor is perfumed locks and womanish garlands.

In these

examples, the youthful form is just a disguise, and in The Bacchae,

Dionysus specifically states that he is taking the form of a mortal.

To Dionysus, gender presentation is another thing he can bend and

transform to his own will.

Clearly, Dionysus’ androgyny is integral to his role as a god

of transformation. He transverses gender and sex roles with ease,

perhaps because of the myths involving his childhood when Hermes

gave infant Dionysus to the Nymphs and he was raised as a girl in

order to protect him from Hera’s wrath.

Possibly, this young

feminine depiction represents an initiation motif. His childhood

disguise as a girl, and thus transition to a masculine adult, may have

mirrored boys’ puberty rituals. In one version of this myth, Dionysus

was handed to his aunt Ino, who was eventually transformed into

Leucothea and was associated with puberty rituals in Boeotian

tradition.

Rituals like these were used to symbolize a boy's

transition from feminine boyhood to masculine adulthood.

One

such ritual, said to have happened in Crete, involved boys wearing

feminine clothes and then taking them off. The casting off of these

clothes symbolized their entrance into society and the affirmation of

gender roles in society.

These rituals also involved the boys’ coming

of age as hunters. They were transitioning from a vulnerable position

Hansen 155

of prey to a power position of hunter.

Specifically in Boeotian

myth, the story of Actaeon is illustrative. Actaeon fell in love with

his aunt Semele and wanted to marry her. Artemis stopped this by

turning him into a stag, and he was devoured by his own hunting

hounds. Actaeon was thus emasculated by becoming prey. A similar

emasculation happens when Pentheus is dressed up as a woman and

ripped apart by the maenads. In The Bacchae Dionysus presents

himself as a feminine adolescent, a sign to the audience that he is

about to display a great deal of power.

He also is the only male god

historically to have a vast array of female worshippers with his cult

giving women power in the religious sphere of

fifth century Athens.

This power was not in the domestic sphere like Hestia and Hera

because the maenads are often depicted engaging in revelry and

abandoning their traditional roles as they do in The Bacchae. Priestess

was the most prestigious role granted to women in the religious

sphere of Ancient Greece, and it granted them great power and

authority not usually afforded to women.

Dionysus may have been

worshipped by these women not only because of his androgyny but

also because of his role as a liberator. He may have symbolized the

repressed emotions a woman in this time period would hold, caused

by a rigid, sexist society.

By following Dionysus, the maenads and

the women of Thebes put under his trance in The Bacchae are freed

from these societal expectations.

Importantly, Euripides was not the first writer to depict a

young and feminine Dionysus, and in the play Edonoi by Aeschylus,

the king inquires about the identity of Dionysus by asking, “who is

that effeminate fellow?”

This play was performed over a century

before The Bacchae, showing that it was not unheard of to depict

Dionysus as effeminate; it also suggests that perhaps the origin of a

beardless Dionysus was theatrical in nature. Nevertheless, the

beardless depiction of Dionysus did not explode in popularity for

fifth century vase painting until after the creation of the Parthenon

and hit play The Bacchae.

What was perhaps a one-off line in Edonoi

was expanded on in The Bacchae into a powerful metaphor of man

versus nature, the masculine versus the feminine. The popularity of

this depiction is solidified by the

fifth century pottery mentioned

earlier. The plays and pottery both took inspiration and subject

matter from the same mythic and ritualistic sources. These rituals

involved young men being dressed femininely, and at their core,

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represent the transition from boyhood to adulthood. Beardless

Dionysus represents this transition to adulthood, furthered by his

role as Zeus’ son and as a liberator. Dionysus takes on many roles

that have been ignored by the general public for the sake of

simplicity. He has proven to be much more than just the god of wine

and madness.

Hansen 157

Terracotta Oinochoe: Chous

(Image Courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public Domain)

Terracotta calyx-krater

(Image Courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public Domain)

Hansen 158

Symposium recreation at the Baltimore Museum of Art

(Image Courtesy: Dr. Galliera)

Terracotta bell-krater attributed to Python (Image Courtesy: Metropolitan

Museum of Art, Public Domain)

Hansen 159

Marble statue of Dionysos seated on a panther

(Image Courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public Domain)

Hope Dionysos at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Image

Courtesy: Dorian Hansen)

Hansen 160

Notes

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 1.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks, 1.

Euripides, Complete Greek Tragedies, 530.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 166–67.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 168–71.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 171.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 173.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 175.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 177.

Aird, Pericles 52.

Badian, Peace, 3–6.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 177.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 188–90.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 193–95.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 201.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 208.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 201.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 209.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 223.

Cartwright, Symposium.

Cartwright, Visual Glossary.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 186.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 226.

Heuer, Five Wares.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 223.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 221.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 230.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 222.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Marble Statue.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 224.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 211.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 213.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 214.

Euripides, Complete Greek Tragedies, 560.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 213–14.

Isler-Kerényi, Dionysos, 217.

Hansen 161

Euripides, Complete Greek Tragedies, 560.

Euripides, Complete Greek Tragedies, 563.

Euripides, Complete Greek Tragedies, 581.

Segal, Dionysiac Poetics, 223.

Segal, Dionysiac Poetics, 223, 259.

Apollodorus, The Library, 330.

Apollodorus, The Library, 543, 583.

Ovid, Metamorphoses, 126.

Ovid, Metamorphoses, 126–28.

Ovid, Metamorphoses, 118–19.

Carpenter and Faraone, Masks of Dionysus, 205.

Apollodorus, The Library, 77.

Bremmer, “Transvestite Dionysos,” 183, 187.

Leitao, ‘Measure of Youth’, 194.

Leitao, ‘Measure of Youth’, 197, 198.

Leitao, ‘Measure of Youth’, 132.

Bremmer, “Transvestite Dionysos,” 195.

McClure, Women in Classical Greek Religion.

Segal, Dionysiac Poetics, 159.

Bremmer, “Transvestite Dionysos,” 184.

Bremmer, “Transvestite Dionysos,” 185.

Hansen 162

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