Beyond lithium-ion: emerging frontiers in next-generation battery

Beyond lithium-ion: emerging

frontiers in next-generation

battery technologies

Balaraman Vedhanarayanan*

†

and K. C. Seetha Lakshmi*

†

Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University,

Chiba, Japan

The rapid advancement of technology and the growing need for energy storage

solutions have led to unprecedented research in the ﬁeld of metal-ion batteries.

This perspective article provides a detailed exploration of the latest developments

and future directions in energy storage, particularly focusing on the promising

alternatives to traditional lithium-ion batteries. With solid-state batteries, lithium-

sulfur systems and other metal-ion (sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium)

batteries together with innovative chemistries, it is important to investigate these

alternatives as we approach a new era in battery technology. The article examines

recent breakthroughs, identiﬁes underlying challenges, and discusses the

signiﬁcant impact of these new frontiers on various applications–from

portable electronics to electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage. Against

the backdrop of a shifting paradigm in energy storage, where the limitations of

conventional lithium-ion batteries are being addressed by cutting-edge

innovations, this exploration offers insights into the transformative potential of

next-generation battery technologies. The article further aims to contribute to

the ongoing scientiﬁc dialogue by focusing on the environmental and economic

implications of these technologies.

KEYWORDS

lithium-ion batteries, solid-state electrolyte, lithium-sulfur electrode, renewable

sources, environmental-economic implications

1 Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been at the forefront of portable electronic devices and

electric vehicles for decades, driving technologi cal advancements that have shaped the modern

era (Weiss et al., 2021). Undoubtedly , LIBs are the workhorse of energy storage, offering a

delicate balance of energy density, rechargeability, and longevity (Xiang et al., 2022). They are

utilized in various electronic devices, such as smartphones and electric cars, and have become a

fundamental component of modern portable power. However, as devices become more

advanced, and electriﬁcation of transportation accelerates, some challenges still exist.

Resource scarcity, safety risks of liquid electrolytes, and theoretical limitations of lithium-ion

chemistry are areas of concern (Song et al., 2023). Researchers are exploring alternative materials

(Peng et al., 2016), solid-state electrolytes (Bates et al., 2022), and new chemistries/technolo gies,

such as lithium-sulfur (Guo et al., 2024) and lithium-air batteries (Bai et al., 2023), to overcome

these challenges and develop the next frontier in energy storage.

The world is shifting towards renewable energy at a fast pace, and the demand for clean

energy solutions is increasing globally. This has made it imperative to innovate battery

technology (Chen et al., 2012). In particular, solid-state batteries have the potential to

improve safety and energy density and could revolutionize energy storage paradigms

OPEN ACCESS

EDITED BY

Ali Ahmadian,

University of Waterloo, Canada

REVIEWED BY

Lei Zhou,

Jiangsu University, China

*CORRESPONDENCE

Balaraman Vedhanarayanan,

[email protected]

K. C. Seetha Lakshmi,

[email protected]

†

These authors have contributed equally to this

work and share ﬁrst authorship

RECEIVED 26 January 2024

ACCEPTED 14 March 2024

PUBLISHED 05 April 2024

CITATION

Vedhanarayanan B and Seetha Lakshmi KC

(2024), Beyond lithium-ion: emerging frontiers

in next-generation battery technologies.

Front. Batteries Electrochem. 3:1377192.

doi: 10.3389/fbael.2024.1377192

This is an open-access article distributed under

the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

License (CC BY). The use, distribution or

reproduction in other forums is permitted,

provided the original author(s) and the

original publication in this journal is cited, in

accordance with accepted academic practice.

No use, distribution or reproduction is

permitted which does not comply with these

terms.

Frontiers in Batteries and Electrochemistry frontiersin.org01

TYPE Perspective

PUBLISHED 05 Apr il 2024

DOI 10.3389/fbael.2024.1377192

(Miyazaki, 2020). Additionally, lithium-sulfur chemistry boasts a

theoretical energy density that exceeds that of conventional lithium-

ion batteries, providing a glimpse into a future where energy storage

is not limited by the past (Wang et al., 2023). Other alternative

chemistries involving sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium

offer sustainable and scalable energy storage solutions (Zhang et al.,

2021; Liu M. et al., 2022). These emerging frontiers in battery

technology hold great promise for overcoming the limitations of

conventional lithium-ion batteries.

To effectively explore the latest developments in battery

technology, it is important to ﬁrst understand the complex

landscape that researchers and engineers are dealing with. The

pursuit of these emerging technologies requires a comprehensive

approach, taking into account not just the technical details but also

the economic, environmental and societal impact. As the world faces

the challenges of climate change and pursues decarbonization of

various industries, the signiﬁcance of advanced batteries has become

increasingly apparent (Davis et al., 2018).

It is important to carefully consider both the advantages and

drawbacks of emerging technologies when navigating this ﬁeld. This

requires a comprehensive evaluation that looks beyond lab oratory

advancements and considers their practical applications. This article

aims to provide guidance for researchers, policymakers, and industry

stakeholders by discussing the latest developments, challenges, and

potential of next-generation battery technologies. Speciﬁcally, it will

explore solid-state batteries, lithium-sulfur chemistry, and alternative

chemistries beyond lithium. By delving into each of these areas, this

article hopes to contribute to the ongoing conversation in the scientiﬁc

community and offer a roadmap for the future of energy storage.

2 Solid-state revolution: paving the

path to safer, high energy-

density batteries

Solid-state batteries (Figure 1A) are a new type of battery

technology that aims to overcome the safety concerns associated

with traditional batteries that use liquid electrolytes (Janek and

Zeier, 2023). They offer higher energy density, which is a signiﬁcant

advantage. The recent advancements in solid electrolytes, interface

engineering, and the integration of solid-state technology into

practical applications make them crucial candidates for next-

generation energy storage (Aziam et al., 2022). However, they

face signi ﬁcant challenges such as manufacturing scalability, cost-

effectiveness, and long-term stability that need to be addressed (Ke

et al., 2020). As the demand for advanced energy storage solutions

continues to increase, solid-state batteries are becoming an

increasingly important area of research. The “Solid-State

Revolution” presents a groundbreaking frontier that is well-

positioned to tackle the signiﬁcant limitations associated with

conventional lithium-ion batteries (He et al., 2021).

Solid-state batteries are a game-changer in the world of energy

storage, offering enhanced safety, energy density, and overall

performance when compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries

(Liu C. et al., 2022). The latter uses a liquid electrolyte to facilitate ion

movement between the positive and negative electrodes during

charge and discharge cycles. Although effective, this design poses

safety risks such as leakage, thermal runaway, and ﬂammability

(Feng et al., 2020). This has been observed in high-proﬁle incidents

involving lithium-ion batteries (McKerracher et al., 2021). The

solid-state battery design seeks to eliminate these risks by

replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid electrolyte, resulting

in a more stable and secure energy storage solution (Figure 1A).

Developing solid-state batteries (Figure 1B) has been a major

challenge, but recent advancements in materials science have allowed

the attainment of solid electrolytes with enhanced conductivity

(Figure 1C), making solid-state battery technology practically feasible

(Sh i et al., 2023). Solid ceramic electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, and

composite electrolyte materials have emerged as frontrunners in the

quest for suitable solid electrolytes (Figure 1C) that can match the ionic

conductivity of their liquid counterparts (Lee et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023a).

With these exceptional advancements, researchers are now more

conﬁdent in their ability to create solid-state batteries that can

revolutionize energy storage technology.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

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Vedhanarayanan and Seetha Lakshmi 10.3389/fbael.2024.1377192

The shift towards solid-state batteries brings about signiﬁcant

improvements in terms of safety. By eliminating ﬂammable liquid

electrolytes, solid-state batteries reduce the risk of thermal runaway,

making them inherently safer for applications that prioritize safety,

such as electric vehicles. Additionally, solid electrolytes are more

robust, contributing to longer battery life and addressing concerns

about degradation and capacity fade often encountered in

traditional lithium-ion batteries over time (Che et al., 2023).

Apart from being safer, solid-state batteries also have the

potential for signiﬁcantly higher energy density. The inherent

properties of solid electrolytes allow for the utilization of high-

capacity materials without compromising safety or stability,

resulting in batteries that can store more energy within a given

volume or weight. This is especially important in applications that

require maximized energy density, such as electric vehicles looking

for extended ranges between charges (Xu et al., 2022).

Despite the promising potential of solid-state batteries, there are

still challenges that need to be overcome in order for them to be

widely adopted. The manufacturing of scalable solid-state batteries

at a competitive cost is an obstacle that researchers and engineers are

actively addressing. Another challenge is related to the interface

between solid electrolytes and electrode materials (Figure 1B), as

well as the mechanical stresses that occur during charge-discharge

cycles. Ongoing investigations are focused on these areas (Stallard

et al., 2022). Despite these challenges, the “Solid-State Revolution” is

making its way into various industries. Electric vehicle

manufacturers are investing in solid-state battery technology to

improve safety and range. In addition, portable electronics,

medical devices, and aerospace applications are exploring the

potential beneﬁts of solid-state batteries. As research progresses,

the possibilities of large-scale applications, including grid-scale

energy storage, are becoming more achievable.

3 Lithium-sulfur chemistry

Lithium-sulfur batteries (Figure 2), like solid-state batteries, are

poised to overcome the limitations of traditional lithium-ion

batteries (Wang et al., 2023). These batteries offer a high

theoretical energy density and have the potential to revolutionize

energy storage technologies (Wang et al., 2022). Recent

developments have successfully stabilized the sulfur cathode,

improved cycle life, resolved issues related to capacity fade, and

ensured practical applications and scalability (Zhou et al., 2022; Bi

et al., 2023). This breakthrough marks a signiﬁcant upgrade in

energy storage that surpasses the limitations of traditional lithium-

ion systems.

Unlike traditional lithium-ion batteries that rely on intercalation

chemistry, lithium-sulfur batteries operate on a fundamentally

different principle (Deng et al., 2022). In Li-S chemistry, lithium

FIGURE 1

Schematic representation (A) comparing conventional lithium-ion battery and its solid-state counterpart, and (B) the various interfaces of solid-state

lithium-ion battery. (C) A plot comparing the inonic conductivity vs operational potential window of different sol id-polymer (PEO-Polyethylene oxide;

PEEC- poly (ethylene ether carbonate); PFEC- poly (ﬂuoroethylene carbonate))/inorganic (LI/NASICON- Li/Na

2+2x

1−x

GeO

; LLZO- Li

;

LLTO- Li

0.5

TiO

) electrolytes with the conventional liquid electrolyte (LiPF

, EC:DMC).

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metal generates multiple lithium-sulfur species, known as lithium

polysulﬁdes, during electrochemical reactions. These species move

back and forth between a lithium metal (negative) and a sulfur

(positive) electrodes (Song et al., 2024). The use of sulfur, an

abundant and cost-effective element, is the key to achieving

energy densities higher than those of lithium-ion batteries.

Lithium-sulfur batteries have a remarkable theoretical energy

density compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries, which

typically have energy densities in the range of 150–250 Wh/kg.

They have the potential to exceed 500 Wh/kg and can even

approach 1,000 Wh/kg in theory (Zhou et al., 2022). This

inherent high energy density positions Li-S batteries as attractive

candidates for weight and volume-sensitive applications, such as

electric aviation and, portable electronics.

The lithium-sulfur chemistry shows immense potential, but its

practical realization faces signiﬁcant challenges. One major obstacle

is the notorious issue of polysulﬁde dissolution. During discharge-

charge cycles, sulfur tends to dissolve into intermediate polysulﬁde

species (Figure 2), leading to the “shuttle effect.” It causes the loss of

active material, reduced cycle life, and overall degradation of

performance (Wang et al., 2023). However, researchers are

actively pursuing strategies to mitigate the challenges posed by

polysulﬁde dissolution.

Recent advancements in battery technology have demonstrated

signiﬁcant progress in stabilizing the sulfur cathode.

Nanoengineering approaches, which incorporate conductive

carbon materials and porous structures, have proven to be highly

effective in conﬁning sulfur and mitigating the shuttle effect (Wang

et al., 2015; Lakshmi et al., 2022). These approaches have been

demonstrated to be effective in recent breakthroughs (Zhou et al.,

2022). Furthermore, advances in electrolyte chemistry, such as the

use of high-concentration electrolytes, functional additives, and

protective coatings (solid-electrolyte interface) have been shown

to successfully suppress polysulﬁde dissolution, resulting in

enhanced overall electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries.

These promising developments indicate a bright future for the

ﬁeld of battery technology.

Despite facing challenges, lithium-sulfur batteries have been

attracting attention across various industries (Liu et al., 2018).

Electric vehicle manufacturers have recognized the potential of

these batteries to signiﬁcantly extend the range of electric cars,

thus addressing a key limitation of the current lithium-ion

technology. In addition, portable electronics, where lightweight

and compact energy storage is crucial, are exploring the

feasibility of lithium-sulfur batteries. The appeal of this

technology is not just limited to incremental improvements, but

it represents a potential paradigm shift in energy storage. Although

there are challenges to overcome and optimization is needed for Li-S

battery implementation, the technology holds the promise of

reshaping energy storage landscapes.

Looking towards the future, ongoing research initiatives are

crucial to unlocking the full potential of lithium-sulfur batteries. To

achieve this, strategies to stabilize the sulfur cathode, innovative

approaches to address polysulﬁde dissolution, and exploration of

new materials and electrode architectures must be considered

(Wang et al., 2022). Collaborative efforts between academia and

industry will play a crucial role in accelerating the development and

commercialization of lithium-sulfur batteries. As researchers

continue to explore new possibilities, lithium-sulfur batteries hold

the potential to become the most promising solution for high energy

density and sustainable energy storage applications.

4 Beyond lithium

Researchers are currently investigating alternative materials and

chemistries for batteries, such as sodium- (Liu M. et al., 2022),

potassium- (Yuan et al., 2021), magnesium- (Li et al., 2023b) and

calcium-ion (Gummow et al., 2018) batteries, aiming to develop

next-generation energy storage solutions. These alternatives are

being evaluated for their potential to offer sustainable and readily

available energy storage options, considering factors such as

performance, cost, and scalability. With the increasing global

demand for energy storage solutions, there is a growing focus on

ﬁnding alternatives to traditional lithium-ion batteries (Gao et al.,

2022). While lithium-ion batteries are widely used, concerns about

the availability of lithium resources and limitations in energy density

have prompted efforts to diversify battery technologies.

Sodium- and potassium-ion batteries (Chen et al., 2019) offer

signiﬁcant advantages over traditional lithium-ion batteries,

including their abundance, cost-effectiveness, and potential for

higher energy density. While lithium is limited in availability and

concentrated regionally, sodium and potassium are plentiful and

widely dispersed globally, ensuring a more stable supply chain.

Moreover, the lower cost of sodium and potassium resources

FIGURE 2

Schematic representation of high-performance lithium-

sulfur battery.

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makes them economically appealing for large-scale energy storage

applications (Song et al., 2021). Research indicates that sodium and

potassium batteries could achieve comparable or higher energy

densities than lithium-ion batteries, particularly with

advancements in electrode materials and electrolyte chemistry

(Yin et al., 2021). For instance, recent studies have demonstrated

signiﬁcant progress in sodium-ion battery technology through the

development of high-performance electrode materials, which could

lead to enhanced energy storage capabilities.

Furthermore, sodium and potassium batteries demonstrate

improved safety and stability in comparison to lithium-ion

counterparts. The larger size of sodium and potassium ions helps

to minimize dendrite formation, which is a common issue leading to

short circuits and battery failures in lithium-ion systems. This

reduced risk of dendrite formation contributes to the durability

and dependability of sodium- and potassium-ion batteries,

rendering them safer choices for widespread utilization. Recent

advancements also highlight the superior stability of potassium-

ion batteries, suggesting their potential for prolonged use in

demanding applications. Overall, the abundance, cost-

effectiveness, and enhanced safety proﬁle of sodium- and

potassium-ion batteries position them as promising alternatives

to lithium-ion batteries for the next-generation of energy storage

technologies.

Magnesium- (Li et al., 2023b) and calcium- (Gummow et al.,

2018) ion batteries present clear advantages over lithium-based

counterparts. Firstly, magnesium and calcium are more abundant

and widely distributed in the Earth’s crust, alleviating concerns

about resource availability. Additionally, magnesium- and calcium-

ions carry multiple positive charges, potentially yielding higher

energy densities compared to lithium-, sodium-, and potassium-

ions, thus enhancing energy storage capacity. Moreover, these

batteries exhibit potential for improved safety through the

formation of more stable solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers

on electrode surfaces, reducing the risks of dendrite formation and

thermal runaway. Furthermore, they can operate at higher voltages,

facilitating efﬁcient device power while ensuring stability

and longevity.

Choosing among sodium-, potassium-, magnesium-, and

calcium-ions, and other potential alternatives involves balancing

factors like material abundance, cost-effectiveness, and

electrochemical properties. Sodium-ion batteries could work well

for grid-scale energy storage. Additionally, potassium-ion batteries

might be a good ﬁt for applications requiring both high energy

density and cost-effectiveness. Conversely, magnesium- and

calcium-ion batteries, known for their stability, could be ideal for

safety-critical applications.

Exploring alternative chemistries ‘Beyond Lithium’ presents

various challenges, encompassing technical hurdles such as ion

mobility, electrode materials, and manufacturing scalability

(Zhang et al., 2021). These challenges are actively addressed by

the research community, leveraging advancements in materials

science, nanotechnology, and computational modeling to

understand the complexities of alternative battery chemistries.

The successful integration of alternative battery chemistries into

real-world applications, spanning from portable electronics to

electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage, is paramount.

Therefore, research initiatives aimed at bridging the gap between

laboratory-scale breakthroughs and practical, scalable

implementations play a crucial role in facilitating the successful

adoption of alternative battery technologies (Gao et al., 2022).

5 Integrating renewables

The growing interest in sustainable energy has created a need for

advanced batteries that can contribute to grid stability, peak shaving,

and overall efﬁciency (Larcher and Tarascon, 2015; Newton et al.,

2021). Practical scenarios and real-world examples have

demonstrated how improved energy storage technology can boost

the use of renewable energy. Integrating renewable energy into the

power grid is critical as we shift towards a sustainable future.

However, the intermittent nature of renewable energy poses

signiﬁcant challenges. This is where next-generation battery

technologies become indispensable in addressing these challenges

and highlighting the transformative potential of advanced energy

storage solutions. Prioritizing the development and implementation

of advanced battery technologies is essential to ensure a seamless

integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid (Hakimi

and Moghaddas-Tafreshi, 2012).

Renewable energy sources like wind and solar power have the

potential to provide reliable and eco-friendly energy. However, their

intermittent nature poses a signiﬁcant challenge to the stability of

power grids, which creates a mismatch between the timing of

renewable energy generation and the demand for electricity.

Therefore, it is essential to store the excess energy during periods

of abundance and release it when needed. This approach is critical to

unlocking the full potential of renewable energy.

The limitations of traditional energy storage solutions, such as

pumped hydroelectric storage, due to geographic constraints, are

widely recognized. Additionally, these solutions often lack the

necessary agility and scalability to address the dynamic nature of

renewable energy. However, emerging batteries, with their advanced

capabilities such as higher energy density, faster response times, and

improved cycle life, are indisputably considered to be crucial

components for effectively integrating renewable energy

into the grid.

One of the main functions of next-generation batteries is to

mitigate the variability of renewable energy generation, especially in

the context of ‘Integrating Renewables’ (Shahnazian et al., 2018).

They are designed to store excess energy during periods of high

renewable output and release it during periods of low or no output,

ensuring a stable and dependable power supply. This capability is

particularly important in situations where a signiﬁcant portion of

the energy mix is derived from intermittent renewable sources.

Advanced batteries not only address intermittency, but also

contribute to grid stability and resilience by quickly responding

to ﬂuctuations in energy demand and supply, which helps maintain

a balance between generation and consumption.

Renewable energy sources are not limited to traditional grid

systems. They also include distributed energy resources like

residential solar panels and wind turbines. Next-generation

batteries play a crucial role in enabling these resources by

allowing households and businesses to store excess energy locally.

This reduces their reliance on the central power grid, creating a more

decentralized and resilient energy infrastructure. In addition, they

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make it possible to create microgrids, which are smaller localized

grids that can function independently or in conjunction with the

primary grid. This technology can improve energy security in

remote or off-grid areas.

The transportation industry heavily relies on next-generation

battery technologies, especially in electric vehicles (EVs). These

batteries not only enable clean and sustainable mobility, but they

also function as mobile energy storage units. When parked, they can

contribute excess energy back to the grid. As a result, they are

becoming an indispensable component of the renewable

energy landscape.

Although the integration of renewable energy with next-

generation batteries has many potential beneﬁts, it is essential to

recognize the obstacles that currently exist (Benavides et al., 2022).

Advancements in technology are imperative to enhance the

capabilities, productivity, and durability of these batteries.

Additionally, economic considerations such as production

expenses and scalability will signiﬁcantly impact the broad

acceptance of these innovations.

The integration of renewable energy sources into the energy

system is interconnected with the development and implementation

of advanced energy storage solutions. The potential of next-

generation batteries not only lies in electricity storage, but it also

involves transforming the entire energy infrastructure. This

transformation can make it more sustainable, resilient, and

ﬂexible to adapt to the challenges of a dynamic and renewable-

based future. The collaboration between renewable energy and

advanced energy storage is considered to be a key factor in

creating a cleaner and more sustainable energy future.

6 Environmental and economic

implications

The development of advanced battery technologies is gaining

momentum, and it is vital to examine both their technical

capabilities and their broader effects on the environment and the

economy. (Blecua de Pedro et al., 2023). The environmental and

economic implications of new developments in energy storage

include their effect on sustainability, resource usage, and

economic viability (Harper et al., 2023). The environmental

concerns start with the materials used in these batteries (Wentker

et al., 2019). Traditional lithium-ion batteries have been criticized

for their use of lithium, cobalt, and nickel, which require signiﬁcant

mining and processing (Llamas-Orozco et al., 2023). However, new

battery technologies that use sodium, potassium, magnesium and

calcium may offer more sustainable alternatives that are more

abundant and widely distributed. Additionally, advancements in

sustainable electrode materials and recycling technologies may help

reduce the environmental impact of battery production and disposal

(Gonzales-Calienes et al., 2023).

In order to assess the environmental impact of batteries, it is

important to consider their entire life cycle - from the extraction of

raw materials to their proper disposal when they are no longer

useable. Life cycle assessments (LCAs) provide a thorough

understanding of the environmental effects of batteries and help

to ensure that they align with sustainability objectives (Popien et al.,

2023). This assessment is essential in making decisions about

materials selection, manufacturing processes, and recycling

strategies. Improving the recyclability of batteries is a key factor

in reducing their environmental impact. Although the recycling

infrastructure for lithium-ion batteries has improved signiﬁcantly, it

is imperative that the next-generation batteries focus on achieving

even better recyclability, in order to establish a circular economy.

This will help in the efﬁcient recovery and reuse of materials,

minimize waste, and reduce dependence on ﬁnite resources.

It is crucial to consider the energy and carbon footprint of

battery production and operation. Manufacturing batteries is an

energy-intensive process, and energy losses occur during charging

and discharging cycles. Therefore, optimizing energy efﬁciency is

essential. To reduce the carbon footprint, it is necessary to use

renewable energy sources for manufacturing and charging batteries,

as well as making improvements in battery efﬁciency. While

environmental concerns are crucial, economic feasibility is also

vital for widespread adoption. The cost of manufacturing,

scalability of production, and overall affordability are essential

factors in determining economic viability. To make energy

storage more affordable, it is necessary to make advancements in

manufacturing processes, achieve economies of scale, and establish

supportive regulatory frameworks.

The economic implications of next-generation batteries go

beyond just the cost of the batteries themselves. These batteries

have the potential to transform energy markets and industries by

improving grid stability, enabling peak shaving, and promoting

efﬁcient use of renewable energy (Harper et al., 2023). As a

result, this can bring economic beneﬁts by reducing the need for

expensive peaker plants, improving overall grid efﬁciency, and

contributing to a more resilient energy infrastructure.

Furthermore, the shift towards these batteries presents

opportunities for job creation and fostering economic growth

while also promoting a sustainable energy future.

A striking balance between environmental and economic

considerations is crucial when approaching the intersection of

these two ﬁelds (Blecua de Pedro et al., 2023). As we transition

to innovative, ‘Beyond Lithium’ batteries, a comprehensive

approach that considers both technical capabilities and alignment

with environmental sustainability goals and economic feasibility is

essential. Effective policies and regulations are crucial for

encouraging sustainable practices, circular economies, and

responsible manufacturing. These measures will guide the

industry towards a future where next-generation batteries can

efﬁciently store energy and contribute to a cleaner, greener, and

economically sound energy landscape.

7 Discussion

In the pursuit of next-generation battery technologies that go

beyond the limitations of lithium-ion, it is important to look into the

future and predict the trajectory of these advancements. By doing so,

we can grasp the transformational potential these technologies hold

for the global energy scenario.

The “Solid-State Revolution” appears to set for signiﬁcant

advancement in near future. Upon overcoming challenges related

to manufacturing scalability and cost-effectiveness, solid-state

batteries are likely to transition from laboratory breakthroughs to

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commercial viability. Enhanced safety, higher energy density, and

potential for diverse applications make solid-state batteries

compelling candidates for powering the next-generation of

electric vehicles, portable electronics, and grid-scale energy

storage systems. Collaboration across industries along with

ongoing research and development efforts will be vital for

unlocking the full potential of solid-state battery technology.

With its promise of unprecedented energy density, lithium-

sulfur chemistry stands at the threshold of transformative

applications. Despite the existing challenges associated with

polysulﬁde dissolution, recent breakthroughs in stabilizing the

sulfur cathodes and addressing degradation issues suggest a

bright future. As research has focused on reﬁning electrode

materials, optimizing electrolyte formulations, and advancing

manufacturing processes, lithium-sulfur batteries may become the

energy storage solution of choice for applications demanding

lightweight, high-energy-density systems. In particular, electric

vehicles could undergo a paradigm shift as lithium-sulfur

batteries overcome technological barriers and enter the mainstream.

The exploration of alternative chemistries beyond lithium, such

as sodium-, potassium-, magnesium- and calcium-ion batteries,

presents a wide range of potential avenues. Sodium-ion batteries,

due to their abundance and cost-effectiveness, could be utilized for

grid-scale energy storage, lessening reliance on scarce lithium

resources. Potassium-ion batteries, offering a balance between

energy density and cost, may play a crucial role in portable

electronics and electric vehicles. Meanwhile, magnesium- and

calcium-ion batteries, capitalizing on stability advantages, could

have applications in safety-critical scenarios. The future viability

of these technologies depends on overcoming their unique

challenges, optimizing their performance, and tailoring them to

speciﬁc use cases.

The combination of renewable energy sources and advanced

energy storage is essential for creating a sustainable energy future. As

renewable energy becomes more prevalent worldwide, next-

generation batteries play a crucial role in maintaining grid

stability, managing peak energy demand, and enhancing overall

energy efﬁciency. Predictions for the future include widespread

adoption of advanced batteries on both large-scale utility systems

and smaller distributed networks, leading to a more robust,

decentralized, and environmentally friendly energy infrastructure.

This integration of renewables with energy storage is anticipated to

transform the overall processes of power generation, consumption,

and distribution.

Predictions for future advancements in next-generation

batteries emphasize the importance of balancing environmental

sustainability and economic viability. Progress in materials

science, recycling methods, and manufacturing techniques is

anticipated to decrease the environmental impact of batteries,

aligning with global initiatives for a circular economy and

sustainable resource management. Additionally, factors such as

economies of scale, novel business strategies, and favorable

regulations are expected to lower the cost of next-generation

batteries, making them economically feasible. This development

is likely to stimulate the growth of a robust industry, generating

employment opportunities and contributing to economic

prosperity.

In summary, the exploration of ‘Beyond Lithium-ion’ signiﬁes a

crucial era in the advancement of energy storage technologies. The

combination of solid-state batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries,

alternative chemistries, and renewable energy integration holds

promise for reshaping energy generation, storage, and utilization.

However, there are signiﬁcant challenges to overcome, necessitating

collaborative efforts from researchers, industries, and

policymakers. The potential of next-generation batteries extends

beyond scientiﬁc inquiry; it offers a pathway to a sustainable,

efﬁcient, and resilient energy future. As research progresses and

innovations materialize, the narrative of ‘Beyond Lithium-ion’ is

poised to have a profound and lasting impact on global energy

systems for generations to come.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in

the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed

to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

BV: Writing–review and editing, Writing –original draft,

Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization. KS:

Writing–review and editing, Writing–original draft, Visualization,

Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no ﬁnancial support was received for

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

BV thanks Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for the

JSPS Research Fellowship (P21035).

Conﬂict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the

absence of any commercial or ﬁnancial relationships that could be

construed as a potential conﬂict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors

and do not necessarily represent those of their afﬁliated

organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the

reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or

claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or

endorsed by the publisher.

Frontiers in Batteries and Electrochemistry frontiersin.org07

Vedhanarayanan and Seetha Lakshmi 10.3389/fbael.2024.1377192

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