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Unit 1
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This course covers the following topics:
TOPIC 1: Introduction to Fashion Design …………………………………………………………… Page: 3 to 22
TOPIC 2: Elements of Design ………………………………………………………………………. Page: 23 to 32
TOPIC 3: Principles of Design…………………………………………………………………….. Page: 33 to 45
Assessment …………………………………………………………………………………. Page: 46
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Topic 1
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Introduction to Fashion Design
Clothing has long been used as more than just a way to coverpeople’s bodies. Different types of
clothing clearly reveal status, especially in the past but even today, and also the wearers’ personalities.
This need to conceal and also to reveal relies on a range of different clothing types and will often be
chosen by wearers to do both. One of the most puzzling aspects of clothing is fashion.
As mentioned above, clothing often clearly reveals status and social class. This can be seen in the boss
wearing a business suit and the workers perhaps jeans or a uniform. This difference, however, may
completely disappear at the weekend. Clothing changes throughout life. People wear different clothes
in the cradle, in school, at university, starting work, special occ asions (weddings and funerals), or
getting promotions. Death has a particular type of clothing both for the dead and those mourning and
this can also be different according to culture. For example, in some places people wear black at
funerals whereas in others the colour to wear is white.
Clothing is also a signal of personal identity. It can be a reflection of the person’s goals, moral
principles, and can also show self-assurance or the lack thereof. Clothing is often a clear indication of
an activity that people are about to engage in. On the flip side, clothing can be used to indicate
something a person is not. In this case, the clothes are worn more as a costume, a cover, if you will.
Specific types of clothing also reveal people who belong to a partic ular group or membership of a
specific group.
When used in its most basic form fashion simply means changing shapes or types of clothing. People
have in the past, and today, felt the need to adorn themselves. This has led to opportunities for people
to develop their own sense of style and/or reveal a place in society. Fashion is only one of many factors
to consider when creating a garment for the market. The general appearance as well as the way it can
be used (i.e., for fitness purposes or for work) must be considered.
When creating a particular style for a certain individual which includes not only clothing but also
accessories or beauty products which are consistent with the personality, this is called fashion
designing.
Key Terms of Fashion Design
A fashion designer visualises and forms garment combinations of line, proportion, colour, and
texture. The designer may not necessarily know how to sew or make patterns, however. Formal
training is essential for fashion designing and most fashion designers are formally trained
(apprenticed) and schooled.
A pattern maker is the one who drafts the shapes and sizes of a garment's pieces with paper
and measuring tools, and, sometimes, an AutoCAD computer software programme . Sometimes
they do it the original way which is to drape muslin on a dress form. The pattern pieces from the
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intended design of the garment must also fit the intended wearer. Pattern makers must have
formal training.
A tailor makes custom designed garments which are made to measure for a client. These can be
clothing pieces such as suits, coats, trousers, jackets and skirts.
A textile designer designs fabric weaves and prints for clothes and furnishings. Textile designers
are usually formally trained as apprentices and are schooled in the trade.
A stylist is one who co-ordinates the clothing, jewellery, and accessories used in fashion
photography and catwalk presentations of clothes collections. A stylist is also a designer whose
designs are based on trends, and the collections of other designers.
A buyer orders stocks of clothes for shops, chain stores etc. Most fashion buyers are trained in
business studies.
A teacher of fashion design teaches the art and craft of fashion in art schools and in fashion
design schools.
A custom clothier makes custom-made garments to order, for a given customer.
A dressmaker specialises in custom-made women's clothes. These include day wear, cocktail, and
evening dresses, business clothes and suits, trousseaus, sports clothes, and lingerie.
An illustrator is someone who draws and paints clothes for commercial use.
A model wears clothes at fashion shows and in photographs in order to display them.
A fashion journalist writes fashion articles describing the garments presented for magazines or
newspapers.
An alterations specialist (known as an alterationist) adjusts completed garments so that they fit
well, usually ready-to-wear, and sometimes re-styles them. NOTE: Not all alterationists are tailors
even though tailors do the altering of the garments to fit the client.
A wardrobe consultant, also known as a fashion advisor, gives clients advice on styles and colours
that are flattering to said clients.
A photographer photographs the clothes on fashion models for use in magazines,
newspapers, or adverts.
Chic
Chic comes from French meaning smart or stylish. It has been used in English since at least the 1870s.
Over time "chic" has been used to refer to, among other things,
social
events, situations,
individuals, and modes or styles of dress. Generic terms f r e q u e n t l y us e d include designer chic
(associated with styles of particular couturiers - the 1980s became known as the "designer decade"),
and retro-chic (adopting elements of fashion from the past: e.g. "Victorian chic", "sixties chic",
"Georgian chic", or "1920s Riviera chic")
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Collection
New lines are created each season by design and merchandising departments in every division. These
new lines are the seasonal collections that will be sold to retails store buyers.
Each season, the design and merchandising departments of each division ar e responsible for creating a
new line, the seasonal collection that the manufacturer will sell to retail store
buyers. The words
collection
and
line
mean the same thing.
‘Collection’ is mainly used in Europe and for high-period
apparel. ‘ Line’ is more often u s e d in the United States for moderately and
popularly
priced
fashion.
Fashion shows
A fashion show is considered a special event. Fashion shows are used to communicate a fashion story.
The fashion office usually does all the selections and the organisation of the fashions and model
bookings. Invitations and other arrangements are usually handled by special events departments.
These presentations can be organised in four different ways, these being formal shows, designer trunk
shows, department shows and informal modelling.
a) Formal Fashion Shows
Formal fashion shows need a huge amount of advance planning which includes booking
models and fittings, arranging for a runway, scenery, lighting, microphones, music, seating, and
also assistants. The clothes will usually be grouped on the basis of styling, colour, or other
visual
criteria.
In order to set a particular mood and to complement the clothes, models and
music are chosen carefully.
b) Designer Trunk Shows
Designer trunk shows are done in collaboration with a single vendor. They are a very popular
way of selling expensive collections. Careful record keeping by sales associates is important
here as it will be from these that the best customers are chosen and sent invitations. The
representative or the designer him/herself will visit stores with the collection and usually show
it on models in the designer collections department. In this way customers are able to see the
entire collection unedited by a buyer. They can then order samples in thei r own sizes. Around
fifty percent of designers and retailers’ total business often comes through trunk shows. They
are also considered very time consuming and exhausting work and a lot of designers and
retailers have now actually stopped doing this type of show.
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c) Department Fashion Shows
Department fashion shows are produced in-store on a much smaller scale to generate
immediate sales. A platform is usually set up right in the department itself that carries the
clothes.
d) Informal Fashion Shows
The easiest shows to produce are the informal fashion shows. Models walk through the store
wearing the fashions and showing them to customers. Usually, customers like to ask questions
and there is no hurry for the models who can take their time. The usual proc edure for this is
that it is done in conjunction with a special promotion or trunk show.
Fashion Flow Chart
Fig. 1
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Classification of Fashion
Designers and manufacturers are particularly concerned with the duration of a fashion collection’s
importance. Some fashion collections have a longer duration than others, some can be very brief. A
designer needs to identify which duration it is likely to be and only then can he/she evaluate the
fashion’s importance to the retail inventory.
Fashion is classified into different types.
These are:
Style
Basic or classic
Fad
Trends
Fashion Forecasting
a) Style
Here is where the difference between style and fashion is clear. Style is constant and does not
change but fashion always changes. Fashion is the modification of a particular style. Style is
considered to be the basic outline of any garment. Changing the sleeves or neckline, for
example, and tweaking a few things here and there on a basic garment piece, changes it and
makes it look different. This change is what becomes fashion - when it is accepted by people.
The word ‘style’ is popular in fashion and refers to a sub-division within fashion. By definition,
it is that which has certain characteristics that distinguish it from other designs.
An example
of this could be that
the fashion is the pleated skirt, but the style is a box pleat. A common
misconception that people have is, believing that famous designers actually create fashions.
Famous designers ai m t o create styles they hope will
be
accepted. If the style then gets
consumer support it becomes fashion. We have mentioned this before but it bears repeating:
fashion is synonymous with acceptance.
b) Basic or Classic
A long lasting or constant garment type such as a T-shirt or skirt is called a Basic or Classic. The
T-shirt and skirt are part of the fashion scene. People will usually have one or more basics in
their wardrobes and they will be worn to suit different occasions. During particular times, the
basic will become the most important promotable fashion, but, whether in or out, they will
always be a part of the fashion scene. Many outfits can be placed in this classification - shirts
and trousers, plain or pleated skirts and denims, etc. These are general fashions that last for
years.
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Basics or Classics are outfits that remain in the fashion scene for long periods of time, that is
from past to present and even into the future.
It is easy to see this concept in movies, for example. Both in old and modern movies we can see
the skirts, or denims, and when worn at different times they will have a slight change or
modification accordingly.
c) Fad
A fad in fashion is something that will appear on the scene and will capture people’s
imaginations. Unfortunately, a fad will faze out just as quickly as it came and it i s for this reason
that fads either make designers lives more interesting or even more tense.
Generally, a fad is defined as a short-lived fashion which lasts for a very short or limited time
and is accepted only by a particular group of people. An example of this could be what is
termed ‘hippy’ clothing. They have/had a particular style of clothing, hairstyles, way of life, etc.
Another reason why fads are usually short-lived is because not everyone can afford them.
d) Trends
The things that major collections have in common are the fashion trends and styling creations
and concepts. Fashion forecasters look for where the fashion direction is going and which styles
they feel will be successful then attempt to create new fashion trends and capture the mood o f
the time.
Sometimes, common sources inspire different designers and therefore, these designers may
come up with similar fashion ideas. The similarity in trends may come from the shape, fabric or
other design component. Oftentimes, a new trend emerges slowly and then expands to other
collections. The media (particularly fashion media) will see similarities in collections and
emphasise them and in this way media exposure facilitates the establishment of these new
trends.
Assessing fashion collections is one way that designers who work for mainstream
manufacturers can examine the directions in fashion. Shopping in major fashion capitals and
using design services or magazines is another way of assessing the fashion trends, especially
since designers are not invited to the shows.
Then there are the buyers who are having a difficult time deciding which trends in fashion will
actually become fashion basics. Capris, for example, became one such fashion item. Pony
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prints, on the other hand, were indeed just a fad. Becoming more flexible in buying patterns
and careful about stock management is what todays buyers must do. Consumers may react in a
negative way if the market is flooded with a new trend as this would create an overexposure
and therefore, become too common.
Global fashion trends are now moving at a very fast pace, spurred on by the Internet and
television. Five months is now the average time span for a fashion trend, not a year. For the
junior market the time span is even shorter, standing at three months.
e) Fashion Forecasting
Fashion forecasting centres on approaching trends and is a global career. Fashion forecasting
will predict many important elements of the upcoming trends such as the type of fabrics and
the styles and colours that will show up on runways and in stores in the next seasons. This
concerns all levels of the fashion industry and includes ready-to-wear to haute couture, mass
market to street wear. Trend forecasting is not limited to the fashion industry, of course. Nearly
all industries use it and need it to keep ahead of their game. It is the fashion forecasters who
know how to appeal to customers, bringing them to the stores and assisting designers and
retailers sell their brands. The Internet is one of the best things that has happened to t he
fashion industry (among other industries). Those who work in the fashion industry depend on
the Internet to show them what’s hot and what’s not in terms of this season’s colours, designer
collections and also celebrity wardrobes.
Various communication media tools are used in fashion forecasting. These include magazines,
press, newspapers, fashion shows, cinema, and window displays.
It also includes things like:
Market research
Consumer focus groups
Consumer research
Fashion Trends
Surveys
Shopping
Sales records
In-store informal interviews
Evaluating the collections
Target markets trends
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The responsibilities of fashion forecasters include all of the following: -
Identifying the prophetic fashion trends.
Making assessments on which segments of the market will accept a particular fashion.
Establishing for how long and at which particular times these fashions will be acceptable
to target customers.
Identifying Prophetic Styles
Fashion forecasters examine the designer collections for something ca lled prophetic styles. These
include new ideas that capture the mood of the times. If many designers shift to similar fashion
directions, which would mean they are using similar fashion components like colour or silhouette, it is
because of common sources of inspiration founded on current interests or certain current events.
Those designers react with similar ideas at the same time, to the same stimuli. When this happens it
may indicate a fashion trend.
Adapting a Trend to a Target Market
Adapting a trend will depend on potential consumers. It is important to know that particular group of
people who make up those consumers. Everything must be taken into consideration. One of the first
things is the age group that is being targeted. Then, income levels, lifestyle and preferences. Fashion
trends differ from continent to continent. American designers, for example, tend to soften silhouettes
and adapt a more casual look as the American lifestyle is generally more casual than the European. The
French lean more to the extreme side, showing creativity and attempting to draw attention to their
individual collections.
How Location Affects Timing
Geographical locations of potential consumers play a big part in the timing of fashion trend adoption
and adaptation. It is usually the case that European fashion trends, especially from France or Italy, are
more quickly accepted globally, especially for those who can afford European fashion. In the case of
the U.S. it generally takes one or even two years for European fashion ideas to be adopted globally.
The New York designer fashion is accepted faster and easier in the U.S. This is because this type of
fashion suits that particular country’s needs. Regardless of the continent, it is the case that those who
live in sophisticated, urban cities with high level, high paying jobs, tend to accept fashion faster than
others. This being the case, retailers and manufacturers adjust their trend predictions accordingly.
Determining the approximate time it will take their potential customers to accept a new fashion trend
is something they both must do. The time between when a fashion originated or first designed, and
when it was bought by the target consumers must be measured so that they have a good idea of
whether consumers will accept the fashion put forth immediately, months from now, or a year from
the time of origin. Almost all sectors now see fashion as a continuous source of inspiration from the
cosmetics industry, to cars, to politics, to sport.
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An important aspect of the fashion industry is forecasting future demand for specific fabrics, styles
and/or colours. It ensures the process of observation related to both short and long term planning is
based on comprehensive decision making. This way, time and effort are not wast ed on hype or
something that will not yield results. Textile specialists will work around two years ahead to establish
the general guidelines for every fashion season. Therefore, accurate forecasting is essential.
Long term forecasting is often used by executives for planning corporate strategies. Marketing
managers who position products in the marketplace do so by carefully regarding the competition.
Product developers, production managers and merchandisers use more short term forecasting in order
to direct the style and shape of collections. Short term forecasting entails apparel companies using
services which assist them in scanning the marketplace and reporting on fashion developments which
include styles, colours and types of textiles.
About a year and a half before the start of the new season, forecasters will get indications as to the
first views of the trends. It is at this time that colour becomes a vital consideration of yarn mills and
becomes the centre of attention in discussions with others interested in early trend decisions. From
the early fashion trade and yarn shows the forecasters combine their opinions about colour and fabric
with their socio-economic and cultural analysis. There are certain areas used to predict the changin g
consumer demands and these include music, cinema, television, sport and trends in lifestyles.
Fashion forecasting includes activities such as analysis of the market conditions and lifestyles of the
consumers, study of sales statistics, assessing popular designer collections, observing street fashion
and examining fashion publications.
The Direction of Fashion Change
Certain trend watchers view fashion currents as a hierarchical status level. One theory has it that
fashion flows down from well-known and highly visible fashion elite. Another theory goes along the
lines of fashion flowing upstream from the street level after it is discovered by the fashion elite and
then launched (in an adapted version) to mainstream audiences. If a particular look is endorsed and
supported by the fashion media and is manufactured quickly enough, it can flow across to all levels of
the market. Take denim, for example. It can be used as is or be presented in different and unusual
colours, different silhouette styles or added details or used as a different way to wear accessories. It
can also be introduced in a way that expresses a particular mood or unique style. Whether it is
accepted or rejected can be time mapped.
This joint selection creates a feedback circle between the consumer and the fashion industry. This cycle
is regulated by visual aesthetic trends and socio-psychological processes.
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Key Areas in Fashion Forecasting
Colour Forecasts
Colours determine moods and the attitudes of a particular season. Colour trends are immediately
connected to consumer moods and goals. Ensuring the shade of colour is spot on can lead to quite an
increase in sales. Clients who are trend-savvy want the fashion products they buy to become the latest
fashion trends. For these reasons designers must be well aware of the latest trends.
Materials trend forecasts for knits, denim, leather, woven and no n-woven fabrics allow designers to
get an idea of which materials will be ‘in’ come the next season.
When it comes to key trends in denim, woven patterns and other weaves, it is generally predicted
about 18 months before the season starts. Fibre analysis is shown in close detail as well as visual
textures. The direction the product will take and the relevant mills and resources, is necessary to know
and understand.
Lifestyle Materials Forecasts
Inspiration for interiors, homewares and certain other are as of product design require a lifestyle
materials forecast.
Knits & Jerseys
Knit and jersey forecasts foresee new ideas and key trends that are having an influence on street style,
runways, knitted materials, trade shows, retail and vintage. All areas are covered and these would
include things like texture and stitch visuals, yarn, knit patterns and how to apply silhouettes.
Non-woven and Leather
Early trends and predictions for skins and non-woven fabrics is what the forecasts aim for in this area.
Key looks are covered such as surface treatments, and knowledge is provided on w hich non-woven
fabrics are emerging as the most influential for fashion and lifestyle.
Prints and Graphics
Graphic and print research forecasts predict the most up-to-date concepts for patterns, prints, graphics
and embellishments.
Women’s Apparel
The essential women’s wear product forecasts must encompass all seasonal key trend looks for all
women’s wear. Blouses, skirts, pants and trousers, skirts, jackets and coats, and denim, etc., are all
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included. Designers must keep up with the latest innovations regarding detailing which includes any
embellishments to collars, fastenings, pockets, and sleeves.
Women’s wear Accessories
Trend forecasts for bags, belts, and jewellery, eyewear, headwear, and soft accessories provide on-
trend knowledge required to lure today's trend savvy consumers.
Women’s Footwear
Enabling designers to create footwear that is trendy and desirable is what footwear forecasting is all
about. Footwear will include anything from shoes and boots to sandals, and even whether or not the
footwear will be heeled or flat. With this, the intention is to incite enthusiasm for any trend savvy
consumers. Footwear forecasting is also about knowing which skin, colour, textures, shapes and any
novelty ideas to use when creating a new product. These will also include any leading street styles and
on the other end, any vintage looks.
Men’s Fashion
Men’s fashion has come a long way in the last few decades especially, and a savvy designer has done
his/her homework regarding the most up-to-date men’s fashion trends. Again, as with women’s wear,
colours, styles and patterns are important to think about for the upcoming season collections for
Autumn/Winter and Spring/Summer seasons.
Children’s Fashion
The forecasting in this area assists designers and also companies determine the colours of the moment
and the right colours and themes for girl’s and boy’s fashions. It is necessary to capture a certain mood
for the upcoming season and the theme descriptions and visuals will help to do this.
The Fashion Forecasting Process
Trend Forecasting Companies
French companies based in Paris have traditionally dominated fashion forecasting. Although a number
of larger ones are still based in Paris, a number of new niche forecasters have emerged around the
world offering their own specialties of products and services.
Some better-known trend forecasters include: WGSN, Style Sight and Trendstop.com.
Consumer Research
Manufacturers and retailers may ask consumers directly about their buying preferences. Consumer
reactions are compiled and tabulated to find preferences for certain garments or accessories, colours
or sizes and so on, or products to fit specific consumer tastes.
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Surveys, by telephone or mail are conducted by publication and market research companies for
manufacturers and retailers. These surveys include questions about income, life -style, fashion
preference and shopping habits. Customers are usually selected by the market research firm to meet
with manufacturers or retailers. In-store informal interviews can help researchers obtain information
by simply asking customers what they would like to buy, what styles they like that are currently
available and what merchandise they want but cannot find. Because of their close contact with
customers, owners of small stores can often do this most effectively.
Consumer research figures are important when making decisions about product development, brand
marketing and retailing.
Colour Forecasting
Stimulating sales is the driving force behind colour forecasting. Colour grabs the customers' attention,
makes an emotional connection and leads them to the product. Even when the basic product stays the
same, changing the colour gives a sense of something new. Colour consultants help companies decide
on the right colour story to sell the product. Some consultants specialise in advising on colour. Others
develop colour forecasts as part of their overall product development function. Some large companies
have departments dedicated to setting colour directions for multiple lines. Professional colour
organisations bring together experts to collaborate on forecasts for industries like women's wear,
men's wear, children's wear and residential and non-residential interiors.
Sales Forecasting
Forecasting is relatively easy, straightforward and usually accurate for products with long lifetimes and
steady sales. However, the fashion apparel business is one of the most volatile, because it creates
products that are new, highly seasonal or have short lifetimes. In such situations forecast s become
increasingly inaccurate. Errors in sales forecasting result in two kinds of losses:
Markdowns, when retailers have unwanted goods remaining at the end of a selling period, such goods
must then be sold, even at a loss.
Cultural Indicators: In the apparel field, companies need an early warning system so that specific
product categories can be fine-tuned to trends within a market segment. While timing is important, an
agile and responsive company will be able to capitalise on trends whenever they a re spotted;
sometimes just as a glimmer far in the future and sometimes as a phenomenon in the building stage.
Waning trends are another signal. When some avocation, interest or lifestyle loses cultural power, it is
a good time to survey the information landscape for the next big thing.
The Final Stage of Forecasting
Designers and companies are after the ‘fashion look’ for the season and to get this there is a process of
development which merges the experienced views of textile and product trade shows, designers and
buyers, forecasters and ready-to-wear shows. All of these together should lead to ‘the look’ as all the
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layers are placed properly together. These shows have a major impact on the trends close to the
season but they can also have a last minute influence on high street fashion products.
Media coverage for the shows is a vital aspect of the trend development process. This is where trends
thought to be influential in the upcoming season will be highlighted. Consumers are influenced by solid
media coverage which focusses attention on the hottest trends of a season.
The Future of Forecasting
Apparel executives are under pressure to hit the bulls-eye mark with regards to fashion trends. This
involves a delicate balancing act anticipating any future developments and being able to quickly
improvise when faced with change.
In the marketplace, those changes may be associated with:
Lifestyles changes.
Immigration.
Development of new technology.
Changes in raw material prices.
Fashion forecasting is therefore employed within the fashion industry as a way of leadi ng companies
towards new ideas for fabrics, themes, moods and colours for varying product types and levels.
Identification and understanding of future market requirements is a necessity. Even though there is no
ultimate fashion story, it is important to access the right colour palettes, and research style and fabric
trends to befit a specific niche. Customer profiles are important, too. Whatever information and
interpretation of information designers can get will enable an effective marketing strategy to be
designed and in turn, lead to more success.
Fashion Cycles
An assortment of new styles created by designers are revealed and displayed to consumers every
season. In some cases, the product design is rejected immediately, usually by the retails buyers.
Others, however, can be accepted for a while and this is shown by customers buying and wearing
them. The changes in fashion are described as ‘fashion cycles.’ Below, is a picture description of a
fashion cycle. It is generally shown as a bell-shaped curve moving through five stages, these being:
introduction, popularity rising, popularity peak, popularity decline and finally, rejection. It is possible
for the cycle to depict a single style for only one designer, or a more general style which would be
something like the miniskirt as an example.
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Peak of Popularity
Styles that enjoy great appeal are usually produced in different variations. With high popularity, a
garment style is in much demand and manufacturers will make copies or copies with modifications and
have many differing price levels.
Decline in Popularity
When there are a very high number of copies produced, fashion-conscious people usually tire of the
style and start looking for new styles. Customers still buy the garment in the style but they will not pay
the regular price for it so retailers will then have to place these garments on sale or discount to move
them out and bring in something new.
Rejection of a Style, or Obsolescence
The final phase of the style cycle is the rejection phase where people are no longer interested in buying
the garment even at discounted prices. It is at this stage that consumers have already started looking
for new styles thus the beginning of a new cycle.
Length of Cycles
It is difficult to predict the actual time cycle of a fashion trend as there is no real measurable timetable
for doing so. In some cases, a fashion style may peak quickly while another will take much longer. The
same goes for the decline in popularity. The time a garment style lasts also differs, from only one
season to several seasons. Some disappear quickly while others don’t completely disappear at all.
Classics
As mentioned above, some styles never completely lose their appeal. They continue to be more or less
accepted for an extensive period of time. This is what would be termed a ‘classic’ style and its
characteristics are usually in its simplicity of design, which stops it being easily dated. The Chanel suit
would be one such example. It had its peak in the late 1950s and gained popularity again in the late
1970s. The House of Chanel, which is located in Paris, as well as other manufacturers, continued to
produce these Chanel suits for a small, dedicated clientele.
Fads
Fads are called so because they come and go usually in a single fashion season. They don’t have the
‘strength’ as it were, of design to keep the consumer interested for a long time. Usually a very small
consumer group is affected by fads. They are mostly found in lower price ranges so are cheaper and
easier to copy. This is usually why they only flood the market for shorter periods of time and it is
because the consumers are saturated by the particular design that they get bored with it just as quickly
as they became infatuated with it. In the early 1980s, for example, it was the ‘punk’ look from the UK
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greater exposure and therefore have a greater influence over how people dress. The media also gives
them airtime when they are seen at public events, on screen or television, for example. These fashion
leaders usually don’t buy a lot, but are very shrewd when it comes to what they will buy.
Fashion leaders are people who are quite confident and solid in their own tastes. They are not
interested in other people’s opinions when it comes to what they choose to wear but dare to be
different. Having these sorts of people wearing a designer’s clothes almost inevitably makes the
clothes fashionable.
Fashion Followers
When we speak of the general public, it is usually the case that people are looking for acceptance and
conform to what fashion leaders are doing. They need the leaders to give them confidence in what
they are wearing and make them feel that it is acceptable. People are fashion followers for a few main
reasons. These may be because they lack the money, the time and even the interest to dedicate to
fashion leadership or they need a longer exposure time period to new styles. These people are usually
not secure in their own tastes and therefore must look to others for what they have approved in order
to know what is acceptable and will bring approval. Fashion followers have an inclination to imitate
people they admire. Most people in the fashion industry are either copiers or adapters and this is
specifically because of the fashion follower consumer types. Looking at things from a marketing angle,
followers make mass production a success because when a particular fashion garment is mass
produced, it can be sold to a great many consumers and therefore be very profitable.
Adoption of Fashion
Three variations of the fashion adoption process exist. These are: traditional adoption, reverse
adoption, and mass dissemination. It is necessary to understand how each of these processes work,
how new fashion is disseminated and how it is adapted to lifestyles, tastes and indeed the budgets of
various consumers.
Traditional Fashion Adoption
Courage and confidence to try new looks are the qualities that innovative designers have in common.
In the beginning, new looks can seem quite extreme, even outrageous, but after a while consumers
start to see how they can be adapted to their particular needs. It is important to note here that the
general public does not accept every new, extreme design, however, in order to move in a different
direction, high fashion often has to be extreme. If a top designer displays harem pants, it is not
necessarily the case that everyone will want to wear them. However, it would show a trend beginning
to move towards ankle appeal.
Traditional adoption theory is founded on the premise that high fashion is expensive. This being the
case, it is only available to a small group of people. The more exposure the garment gets, the more
people see it, the more chance there is that they will like it and be moved to purchase, although at a
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lower price tag. It is this group that manufacturers and retailers then wish to appeal to and go about
adapting the particular fashion for the purpose of selling it to the general consumer. These are then
copied again in order to be appealing to even the most conservative buyers. Discount houses will
display these items later and when their popularity fades and people tire of them they’ll disappear.
Fashion has a certain suggestion of newness so when a fashion item is copied and edited then sold at
lower prices, this newness and its quality will be lost. This is one of the drawbacks to traditional
adoption of a fashion – the original gets so modified that it loses its appeal and often even becomes
unrecognisable.
Reverse Adoption
In most cases, as has already been stated, fashion flows down from high priced designer clothes to the
general public. However, there are certain times when fashion is activated by the consumer. During the
‘60s and ‘70s, it was the younger generation in London and San Francisco that influenced the fashion
industry through their use of combination clothes of old, new and handcrafted.
Mass Dissemination
Mass dissemination, also known as Missy, is a more conservative adaptation of proven or accepted
designer looks which use cheaper fabrics and softer silhouettes.
This market styling is usually adapted from designer fashion by traditional means. It is the consumer
that inspires active sportswear and denim through the reverse process. With regards junior fashion, it
may be mass disseminated as the original ideas are usually produced for this specific young market.
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Topic 2
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Introduction to Design
Three main aspect-structures, functions and decorations must be considered when designing
garments. The design must be appropriate for the buyer’s needs and structurally effective as per the
fashion of the day.
The garment should allow the person to perform activities while wearing it. It should be appropriately
decorative and most importantly, be functional. Buyers gravitate towards clothing items that are
functional as well as have an appealing appearance, structure and decoration. When the principles of
design are met with these three aspects above, the result is usually success. These are the three
elements of visual design and are the basics from which visual designs are made. Designers must be
aware of the potential and the limitation of each element. The elements share individual and
fundamental elements to a garment but they are not always mutually exclusive. Shape cannot exist
without lines and space, as an example. An important part of designing is unders tanding how and why
people respond to various principles and elements of design and also knowing how manipulate and use
them effectively to create a good design.
Elements of Design
The Art Element is one of the components that interacts when creating a design. Elements and
principles of design are adaptable and must be interpreted in the current fashion setting. Designs can
be described as line, shape, colour and texture arrangements which then create a visual image. The
principles of design are the degrees that govern how elements are effectively combined.
The Elements of Design are:
Line
Form
Shape
Texture and
Colour
The above elements are referred to as ‘Plastics’ in art language. This is because they ca be adapted and
arranged by designers to create the desired illusions.
Line
The Line refers to the outline or edges of an item of clothing and the style lines that allocate the space
within that piece. It is a very versatile and useful tool which functions both visually and verbally. It is the
Line that will lead the eye in the direction the garment line is moving and divides the areas through which
it moves. In this way it provides a breaking point in space. Line defines the silhouette of a garment and is
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used to convey the mood or character. The Line can create illusions such as width and height and make
figures look thinner or thicker depending on what look they’re going for at the time.
Line has nine characteristics, these being: path, thickness, evenness, continuity, edge sharpness, contour
of edge, consistency, direction and length. All these give Line a very important role in dress design. Line is
a space manipulator, it divides it, organises it, pushes or pulls it, encloses it, separates and contours space.
Definition: Line is an elongated mark, the connection between two points, or
the effect made by the edge of an object where there is no actual line on the
object itself.
Lines can be placed into three categories with regards to garments. These are:
1. By type
2. By direction
3. By application
Every garment will include a combination of lines from each of the three categories.
Line types
Lines can be of three types: straight, curved, and jagged. See Figure 2.1
Straight line: Every garment will have some straight lines which emphasise the body angles and offset
the body roundness. In garments, straight lines are created by seams, hems or garment edges, trims,
pleats, darts, tucks, braids or panels, and they intend to create a sense of boldness or power. However,
if more straight lines than necessary are used on an item it can make the piece look stiff.
Curved lines: Curved lines can be circular or rounded and referred to as full curve or restrained curve
which is more flattened out. Curved lines are considered less conservative, form al and more powerful
than straight lines. Curves and circles create the illusion of spaces being larger than they are and also
enlarge the shape and size of a figure. On addition, they bring a certain interest and smoothness along
with a gentle, soft and a youthful, flowing feeling. Using too many curved lines on a garment will
produce a confusing look.
Full curve: A full curve will accentuate body curves and counteract a look of thinness or angularity. It
will bring about a feminine, youthful, and vibrant character. Full curves are introduced through the
seams and edges of a garment including scalloped edges.
Restrained curve: Restrained curves lightly accentuate the body curves of the wearer. They provide
soft, shallow curves which imply comfort, relaxation, safety and familiarity. These elements are created
by dress seams, edges, princess lines, trims and draping, or gathering fabric patterns.
Jagged line: Jagged lines contain sharp points like a zigzag pattern and may change direction suddenly
due to their points. These lines create a busy, excited and sometimes jerky effect and highlight
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angularity. A feeling of confusion will be created in a dress when these lines are used more than
necessary. It is important to be careful with jagged lines due to their very noticeable effects. Using
fabric pattern and trim like rickrack will create this effect.
Figure 5
a. Straight line
______________
b. Full curve
c. Restrained curve
d. Jagged line
Line Direction:
According to their direction, lines may be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal.
a) Vertical Line
In Fig 5 vertical lines create the illusion of added height to the garment. These lines will make
a shorter person look thinner and taller.
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Vertical design lines pull
the eye up and down and
make a person look taller and Fig 5
slimmer. Here they are provided
by the seam types, flaps,
contrast bands or trim,
pleats, and buttons.
The power of Lines is in their ability to create moods and feelings. Vertical lines, for
example, bring to mind upright, majestic figures and suggest stability.
b) Horizontal Lines
Lines at rest is the impression horizontal lines give. They sugg est calmness, quiet and
repose. These types of lines make the eye pause so wherever you want emphasis, this is
where they should be placed – anywhere you want emphasis to balance out another
feature or draw attention to one.
These lines (Fig6 below) add width to the garment and decrease the apparent height, hence,
they make a tall person look smaller and broader.
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Fig. 6
Pockets, flaps and epaulettes are
all horizontal details which can be
used to your advantage.
c) Diagonal Lines
Diagonal lines are used to add or decrease the height of the wearer depending on their
slope.
Long,
uninterrupted diagonals whi ch tilt almost vertically, are use d t o c rea te the
most lengthening st yl e and most dramatic of all lines.
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Fig 7
Dynamic, slenderising, and attractive are words
that describe diagonal lines. It is easy to
see from the above picture that the diagonal hem,
neckline, and drape create a great evening look.
It is best if diagonal lines are combined with vertical or horizontal lines. When diagonals alone are
used for the whole dress the effect will most likely be disturbing.
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Shapes
The shape is what defines the outer dimensions or contour of an object. Shapes are also used to
enclose spaces and impart a particular character to the object that is being viewed. The shape of a
body can be revealed in a natural way through clothing design, however, it can sometimes be
distorted. A garment’s shape can usually communicate messages about the wearer.
A good silhouette is made up of elements that in themselves have interesting shapes including round,
square, rectangular, oval and triangular, just to mention a few. When a waistline is placed on an item
of women’s clothing it is divided into two shapes, a bodice and a skirt. The sleeve will become another
shape and all these parts then form new spaces where smaller details can be added including pockets
and collars. Fabric patterns can make other little shapes.
In each fashion period, shapes may appear slowly or develop suddenly. No matter what the actual
shape is it can be edited and restyled in different designs whilst not changing the basic garment shape.
It may be tight or flowing, straight or circular, a raglan or a line. When a garment has an easy fitting
shape to it, the time period of its popularity will be generally longer and it will be more accepted and
varied. On the other hand, a garment that is tight usually has a much shorter cycle. This is because
these types of designs are usually only suitable for one particular type of figure. So, if a designer wants
his/her designs to last longer and be accepted by a larger portion of the population, the idea is to use
an easy silhouette.
Basic Shapes
There are seven basic shapes in dress designing. Every season’s adaptations are of one or more of
these. They are:
Fig 8 Fig 9 Fig 10 Fig 11
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Fig 12 Fig 13 Fig 14
Figure 5 shows an example of a garment which is long, straight, and hanging in loose, graceful folds,
such as in Greek and Roman styles. It will have straight line sheaths and could be for tailored suits. This
type of style with these particular lines is slenderising and suitable for women who are either well-
proportioned or heavier women.
Triangle
Figure 6 shows an example of a Spanish style which includes a fitted bodice and a bell shaped, gently
widening skirt.
Inverted Triangle (7)
Figure 7 has wide shoulders and a narrow skirt with dolman or raglan sleeves. This is a particularly
good design for women with a large bust.
Oval (Fig 8)
The oval shape is draped over a figure and softly shaped. It is a very feminine and decorative form. It
is suitable for women who are
well-
proportioned and have the ‘ideal’ figure. This style is suitable for
afternoon and evening wear in particular.
Square (Fig 9)
The square design has straight or boat shaped necklines, or boxy jackets, or capes. This style is good
for w ome n wi t h very thin figures and can camouflage certain figure irregularities when the
proportions are well planned and h a v e a good design.
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Round (Fig 10)
Round shaped designs include wide skirts, petal shapes and puffy sleeves. This style i s suitable for
formal
wear or afternoon frocks. This particular fashion design best suits the very young and/or
the
very thin figured.
Hourglass (Fig 11)
The hourglass style includes wide shoulders and either a natural or ‘wasp’
waist which comes in. It fits
smoothly over the hips and usually has a full skirt. This is a good design for the tall, thin figure.
Combinations
A combination includes using the outline of any o f t h e current fashion silhouettes which can be
modified and combined with another. It can also be adapted for any specific figure type. In this way
any irregularities ( or lack of ideal figure proportions) can be lessened while still keeping the general
effect of the current fashion design style.
Space
When discussing space in designing, it is generally referring to the area seen between the shapes. A
b usy space in
garments will be
distractive and tiring to the eye.
The lines on a piece of clothing provide a path of vision along which the eye w i l l travel. Usually,
curving
lines
relate more naturally to human bodies and vertical lines tend to make a body look
more slender.
Horizontal
lines, on the other hand, suggest width. If a designer wants to create
emphasis he/she will use repetition and extreme contrast of a line, shape, space or form.
Colour and Texture
When discussing principles of designing or when starting off with a specific design theme, the first
thing that needs to be decided is the fabric colour and texture. In each season, or every now and then,
a colour will appear in the fashion scene that has been decided by the leading
manufacturers,
exporters and textile experts of the fashion world.
When choosing a colour it is of utmost importance to be very careful because the colour will be the
first impression people will get and therefore will either elevate the appearance of a person or destroy
it. Colour is so important to a garment that the colour scheme can even enhance a very simple
silhouette. Another visual effect on the wearer will be created by the texture or feel of the fabric, how
it drapes on a body, and how stiff or soft it is. If given even a small swatch of fabric, a good designer is
able to visualise the texture and how the fabric will fall on a figure. This will help him/her design
further.
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Topic 3
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Introuction to Principles of Design
The principles of design are guidelines which assist designers understand and use the elements of
design in effective ways. Principles of design are the processes used to examine, create and evaluate
garment designs on and off the wearer. It is essential to apply the principles of balance, proportion,
emphasis and unity/harmony. These are not theoretical art terms; they are indeed detailed guides
which help designers create garments that are both attractive and appealing.
In order to create and express in an artistic manner it is important to use design principles which are
pleasing to the eye. The designing principles are:
1. Balance
2. Emphasis
3. Harmony
4. Proportion
5. Rhythm
Balance
Balance is an element that shows poise and stability and for this reaso n it is important. The human
body is visually symmetrical, that is, it is the same on both sides of a central line. For this reason it is
best that any important features or decorations are assembled in such a way that equal interest or
‘weight’ is shown on both sides of the centre when designing a garment. This centre does not
necessarily have to be an actual centre line but can be an imaginary centre. When this happens, an
attractive harmony is created. Balance can be achieved through the use of structura l elements and/or
any added decoration where suitable.
Fig 15
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Formal Balance
Formal balance, also known as symmetrical balance, is easier to produce than informal balance. Formal
balance may not be as interesting, however. Formal balance will be achieved when objects are exact
mirror images of each other on either side of a garment. In order to bring a sense of dignity and/or
formality to a dress it is necessary to have formal balance. Both upper and lower areas of a design
must be carefully organised to create a balanced effect. Too much ‘weight’ at the top or bottom will
give it a heavy look in that area and will not be appealing or attractive. Wearing a dark coloured shirt
over a light coloured skirt (or pants) would make the wearer look short(er).
Fig 16
This design (Fig 16) is an example of achieving good balance by ensuring both sides of the dress are
exactly the same including the plaiting on either side being the same width and amount and placed at
the same distance from the centre line. The jacket also has the same decorative ornamentation on
either side which again keeps the balance. Equally well balanced is the dress which is placed at the
right spot at the waistline and the jacket worn above which balances the plaiting below.
Fig 17
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The above design is an example of formal balance which could be improved upon by
moving
the
monogram to the centre of the dress. As it is at the moment, the dress seems out of balance.
Informal balance
Informal balance is created when objects seem to equalise each other, however, this is not done
through the arrangement or through any repetition. It is created when it occurs in an arbitrary manner.
With informal balance the design of sizes, shapes and attractions are placed accordingly. Designs that
are larger and attractive should be away from the centre. When arranged properly, informal designs
can be not only effective but attractive too.
Fig 18
A good example of informal balance may be seen in Fig 18 above. Each side of the dress is different.
There is a big sash near the centre lines which is balanced out by the small adornment placed on the
shoulder. This adornment is as far as it can be placed from the centre line.
Below is an example of a bad informal design (Fig 18). As all the weight falls on one side of the dress it
make it look one-sided, perhaps even lop-sided.
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Fig 19
Showing equal distribution of weight on both sides of the centre line will make the dress appear in
balance. It is less likely that mistakes will be made in formal balance because line decorations are
repeated on each side of the centre line.
For some occasions, however, formal balance is not appropriate as it can be too severe. It is
appropriate for sports clothes or street dresses whereas afternoon and evening gowns are best suited
to informal balance.
To correct any appearance of body irregularities it is better to use informal balance as people will not
really compare one side of the body with the other. Making the body appear symmetrical is what
informal balance will create because both sides of the garment will be cut and arranged in a different
way. This type of design is more time consuming and therefore has an increased manufacturing cost
involved.
Radial Balance
Radial balance is created through the major parts of the design emanating from a central point. Things
like seams, pleats or motifs emanating from a focal point produce a ‘sunburst’ effect. Radial balance is
often seen on necklines. This type of design is usually found on expensive clothing because of the
intricate features of radial balance.
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Figure 21 above shows an example of emphasis. On the neckline it is the bow that emphasises that part
of the dress. In this case, the observer’s attention is drawn to the centre of attraction, the head.
Figure 22 is the opposite of emphasis. The dress is large and curved with a design that doesn’t match or
complement the V-shaped neckline. In this case, the best thing to do would be modify this design to
one which does not emphasise the centre area of the dress to such a huge extent and change it so that
the interest is moved to the wearer’s head.
Emphasis must not be placed in an area that the individual wearer wishes to minimise. It is most often
the head, or personality area, that should be emphasised as it is the most important. In order to do this
it is important to use appropriate colour and texture contrasts, necklines, scarves or hats and jewellery.
As mentioned earlier, it is important to ensure that only one area is emphasised and no more. If one
wants emphasis on the legs, for example, the design should use unusual hem lengths or designs at the
hem, coloured or textured hosiery, or
fancy footwear. When this occurs, the other parts of the body such as the torso, hips or waist become
areas of lesser interest.
Creating Emphasis in Garments
1.
Emphasis can be created through the grouping of ruffles, gathers, rows of stripes, tucks,
buttons, or trim in one area. Another way to do this would be by a concentration of
jewellery, either rows of beads, chains, or pins, for example. SeeFig: 23d.
2.
Simply by virtue of their individuality unusual lines and shapes are eye arresting. Oddly
shaped collars, sleeves, jewellery pockets, belts and trims, and oversized buttons, etc. can
all be used to create local interest. Any textures or fabric designs that are unusual and
different from the ordinary may attract attention and bring focus to an area. When using
any elaborate, complex or eye-catching fabric design it is best displayed by simply using
garment designs. This is so that the fabric and the garment design do not compete with
each other for attention.
3.
Using decoration placed appropriately on a plain, contrasting background allows the
decoration to be dominated (Fig: 23b). When adding embroidery, jewellery, trims,
buttons,belts, or buckles on a contrasting background they will be emphasized and become
the area of interest.
4.
In order to create emphasis it is necessary to use contrasts of colour, line, shape, and
texture. (Fig: 23 c). Certain related factors must be employed to connect these contrasts. If
not, the result will be confusion. It is important to note here that if a designer uses
contrasts too many times the impact of the design will be lost.
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as proportion - the actual comparison. A garment will seem to be shorter and wider when all parts are
divided equally. The Chanel suit is a good example of an even proportion with its hip -length jacket and
knee-length skirt. An uneven proportion will keep the eye moving and give it something interesting to
look at.
The observer’s eye will compare both the height and width of all parts of a design. All parts must relate
to each other in size and that includes sleeves, pockets and collars. They must also all relate to the
complete silhouette.
A style with two-thirds to one third proportion will make the wearer seem taller and slimmer. An
example of this would be the fingertip-length jacket over a short skirt or a knee-length tunic over a pair
of pants. A proportion based on one-third to two-thirds is also visually appealing, an example being the
empire-waisted dress or a jacket which is waist-length with a flaring skirt. This type of skirt will make
the hips seem smaller. A jacket with shoulder pads or extended shoulders will make the lower part of
the body look narrower in comparison.
25
The uneven proportion shown in the garment above makes the wearer look slimmer and taller. It is the
combination of the long jacket and shorter skirt, the uneven proportions.
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Rhythm (Repetition)
The term ‘rhythm’ in designing refers to organised movement. The rhythm of a garment is the pleasing
arrangement of design elements which allows the eye to easily move over the piece of clothing. A
regular or gradual change which gives a sense of continuity throughout a design is what will create
rhythm. When a pattern is repeated it makes the effect stronger, however, this repetition is not always
necessary. In order to create rhythm effectively it should be used with shape, line and space as well as
by changing the hue, the value or the colour intensity.
Rhythm in Clothing Design
As mentioned above, rhythm is achieved by repetition. It is also created by gradation, opposition,
transition or by the radial assembly of certain parts of the design and fabric. In garment design it is
achieved by using combinations of lines, colours, shapes and textures.
Rhythm through Repetition
Achieving rhythm is created by repetition or regular repeats of shapes, buttons, pleats, laces, colour,
motifs of design, or pleats. The rhythm can be created by having all parts use the same shaped edges
such as keeping them all rounded or squared or scalloped. Using colours in a repetitious manner can
achieve a good effect in particular if the colours are allocated in an interesting manner, see Fig 155.
To create a gentle wave rhythm which gives the sense of peace and calming, smooth, and undulating
lines can be used. Repetitious use of lines with sharp or jagged points creates an exciting rhythm and is
best suited to dramatic evening wear. It is however, necessary to take care with this type of design as it
can also create a disturbing or subduing design on a garment. For an abrupt rhythm creation use tucks,
pleats and stitching folds. Trimmings such as buttons, laces and beads will also create rhythmic effects
therefore use these to achieve variety in a rhythmic manner.
Rhythm through Progression
Rhythm can also be created by progression or by gradation, the latter being a gradual increase or
decrease of similar design elements. Colours may move from light to dark or textures from fine to
coarse, for example. Shapes can range from small to large, or vice versa. Lines can range from thin to
thick. The gradual changes give continuity while providing a feeling of movement. Another way to
create rhythm is through systematic sequences of gradually increasing or decreasing changes in sizes of
motifs, trims, buttons, intensity, flowers, ruffles, and fabric design, etc. See Fig: 155 d.
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Assessment Total Marks: 20
1. What are the principles of design? 5
2. How is the formal balance achieved in dress designing? 5
3. What is the relationship between the principles and elements in a design? 5
4. Define the following terms 5
Classic, fads, Interrupted Cycles, Recurring Cycles, traditional fashion adaption and reverse
adaption.